Cos for requirements and resources, and then Assistant cos for materiel, from 1942 until October 1944, becoming the linchpin of the US Army’s vital procurement system. Transferring to Normandy, he displayed equal logistical genius as base section commander. Following an appointment as Deputy-Director, Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he sought a combat command in the Pacific; instead, he was posted to Europe as Deputy Military Governor (under Eisenhower) of the US Zone of Germany. Believing that a prosperous, democratic German state would best serve the West’s political and economic interests, he worked tirelessly for economic reconstruction and the restoration of civil government. His uncompromising refusal to make any concessions to the Soviets during their blockade of Berlin, June 1948-May 1949, was fully supported by President Truman. RO’W.
Clemenceau visits his troops, 1918
Clemenceau, Georges (18411929). Fr. Twice Prime Minister of France, Clemenceau received his political education from the highly charged liberal opposition to the Second Empire, and was an active figure in the Paris Commune and the Third Republic. He was a formidable critic of the conduct of World War I, until in November 1917, aged 76, he took office as Prime Minister. His leadership during the final year of the war earned him the sobriquet Pere la Victoire. Presiding over the Paris Peace Conference, he was dissatisfied with its outcome, in particular with the failure to secure the Rhine frontier as protection against Germany. This, coupled with his alleged repression of socialists during the war, brought criticism from Right and Left, and he resigned in January 1920. SLB.
Clifford, Clark M (b. l906). US. Succeeded McNamara as US Secretary of Defense, January 1968. As chair of President Johnson’s Ad Hoc Task Force on Vietnam, opposed further involvement; convened group of senior statesmen (“the wise men”) who advised disengagement. Subsequently took lead in persuading Johnson to end bombing (at first, north of 20th Parallel only) and seek a negotiated peace.
Cluster bomb. A bomb which contains a large number of submunitions which are scattered over the target area, thus compensating for the aiming errors inherent in low-level attack. The submunitions or “bomblets” may be optimized for the anti-personnel or, anti-armour role, or be dualfunction. The American Rockeye 2 carries 247 dual-function bomblets which it scatters over 51,685 sq ft (4,800 sq m) if released at a height of about 490ft (150m).
Coastwatchers. Solitary observers, mostly Australians and New Zealanders, who transmitted information on Japanese movements from secret locations in the Bismarck and Solomon Islands during World War II.
Coastal Command. Created by the
. reorganization of the raf in July 1936. Although an integral part of the RAF, Coastal Command could not be diverted from maritime work without the approval of the Admiralty and, from 1941 onwards, it was placed under the operational control of the Admiralty. At the beginning of the war it was equipped chiefly with Ansons, whose radius of action was limited to about 250 miles (400km). These were gradually replaced by Wellingtons, Sunderlands. Catalinas, Halifaxes, Beaufighters and Very Long Range Liberators. Successive marks of asv were introduced and, from 1943 onwards, the Command became a highly effective means of dealing with German U-boats. ANF.
Cochrane, Air Chief Marshal Sir Ralph (1895-1977). Br. As aoc 5 Group, Bomber Command (1943-45), he fostered radically new bombing and marking techniques, prime examples of which were the Dams raid, led by Gibson in May 1943, the visual marking of the centre of Munich by Cheshire in April 1944 and off-set bombing which the latter and others directed thereafter. Cochrane’s ideas, which depended on low-level visual aiming, were opposed by Bennett.
“Cockade”. Allied deception plan feigning an Allied invasion of France in 1943.
Cockerell, Sir Christopher
(b. l910). Br. Inventor whose prototype of 1955 made practicable the air cushion vehicle (acv), since developed for both military and commercial use. see also
HOVERCRAFT.
Cockcroft, Sir John (1897-1967). Br. From 1925-35, Cockcroft worked under Sir Ernest Rutherford, exploring the physics of atomic nuclei. In 1935 he took over supervision of the Mond Laboratory and increasingly concerned himself with military applications of scientific research. He also successfully enlisted the cooperation of other physicists, especially after Sir Henry Tizard briefed him on work being carried out into rdf. He accompanied Tizard in 1940 on a mission to the US to exchange information on defence-related scientific developments. On his return he was appointed Chief Superintendent of the Air Defence Research and Development Establishment and oversaw major work on radar and proximity fuses. Cockcroft was not intimately involved in the development of an atomic bomb until, in 1944, he went to Canada to take charge of the Montreal Laboratory and the construction of the nrx heavy water reactor. MS.
Cogny, Maj Gen Rene (1904-68). Fr. Appointed Navarre’s deputy and commander Tonkin theatre (northern Vietnam), May 1953. Instrumental in “Navarre Plan”; advocated establishment of strong outposts in the enemy’s rear. Underestimated Viet Minh capabilities, and must share blame, with Navarre and Castries, for the defeat at Dien Bien Phu.
Colby, William Egan (b. l920). US. Took part in Jedburgh missions to France and Norway 1944—45; director, ciA, 1973-76. See also
JEDBURGH TEAMS.
Cold War. The term used to describe the condition of extreme ideological hostility, short of war, between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies. After the Chinese Revolution (1949) it spread to East Asia. Tension sprang from the efforts of the superpowers to reorder the world after 1945. The US sought to establish a world of liberal, capitalist states; the USSR demanded compliant, “friendly” (i. e. communist) neighbours to protect her vulnerable western frontier. The advance of communism in Eastern Europe was interpreted as Soviet aggression. American policymakers believed, in the words of NSC-68, their central strategy document, that the USSR was “animated by a new fanatic faith antithetical to our own, and seeks to impose its absolute authority over the rest of the world”. Ideological competition was extended into all spheres of national life, military, political, technological, cultural and social. After 1960, as tensions were reduced. Cold War strategies became concerned primarily with counterinsurgency. BHR.
Colditz. In November 1940, Colditz castle in Saxony was established as Oflag IVC, a special camp for Allied officer rows. Situated in the heart of Germany, the fortress was an intimidating and supposedly escape-proof prison for some 400 inveterate escapers and special category prisoners of all three British services and members of the armed forces of Poland, Holland, France, Belgium and the US. In spite of all the German precautions, more than 300 escape attempts were made, 30 of which were successful. Colditz was liberated by American forces on April 16 1945.
Collins, Gen Joseph Lawton (“Lightning Joe”) (1896-1963). US. cos of the Hawaiian Department in 1941, Collins took command of the Hawaii-organized 25th Infantry Division (nicknamed “Tropic Lightning”; from which his
Gen Collins {centre) on Guadalcanal.
Own sobriquet derived) in 1942, leading it in the final operations on Guadalcanal, December 1942-February 1943, and New Georgia, July-August 1943. Transferring to the European theatre, he commanded VII Corps in Bradley’s US First Army, heading the Utah beach landings in the Normandy invasion, June 6 1944. In the breakout from the beachhead, VII Corps particularly distinguished itself at St-L6, July 25-31, where, although taking 1,000-plus casualties on the first day, Collins held off German counterattacks on the left while thrusting forward on the right to secure Coutances and Avranches. Collins’ hard-driving leadership (although called a “G. I.’s General”, he could be ruthless when necessary) here, and subsequently at the Falaise Gap, Aachen and in the Ardennes, won the admiration of Bradley and Montgomery; in April 1945, VII Corps joined hands with the Soviet XXXVI Corps on the Elbe at Dessau. Collins was US Army Chief of Staff, 1949-53, and later was for a time President Eisenhower’s personal representative in Saigon, Vietnam. RO’N.
Collins, Gen Michael (1890-1922). Irish. A member of the Irish Volunteers from 1909, Collins served six months’ imprisonment after the Easter Rising 1916. During the Anglo-Irish War 1916-21, he was a leader in rebuilding the Volunteers as the Irish Republican Army: his own urban guerrilla unit (“The Squad”) pursued an effective campaign against British intelligence services, culminating in the assassination of 12 British officers on “Bloody Sunday”, November 21 1920. A principal negotiator of the treaty establishing the Irish Free State, he became its provisional premier in January 1922 and subsequently c-in-c of its army. Regarded by extreme Republicans as a traitor for agreeing to Ireland’s partition, he was killed when his armoured car was ambushed during a tour of military inspection in Cork on August 22 1922. RO’N. See also
ANGLO-IRISH war; IRISH REl'UBLl-CAN ARMY.
Collishaw, Air Vice Marshal Raymond (1893-1976). Canadian. Collishaw, from British Columbia, scored 60 victories as a fighter pilot with the rnas and raf on the Western Front, 1916-18. He later became an Air Vice Marshal and commanded Numbers 202 and 204 Groups of the raf in the Western Desert, 1940-41.
Colmar Pocket. Although the US 6th Army Group succeeded in reaching Strasbourg by November 23 1944, elements of the German Nineteenth Army clung to a position on the west bank of the Rhine around the town of Colmar in Alsace. The elimination of this bridgehead, the “Colmar Pocket”, was essential to Eisenhower’s plan to establish a secure line along the Rhine before crossing the river, but the Germans held out for over two months against the overstretched and undermanned 6th Army Group. Indeed, as part of Operation “North Wind”, launched late on December 31 1944, German units advanced northwards from the pocket and were within 13 miles (21km) of Strasbourg when halted by French troops. However, towards the end of January 1945, the US Seventh Army and French First Army combined in a twopronged attack from the north and south and by February 9 the pocket was cleared of German units PJS.
Cologne, Thousand-Bomber raid
On (May 30-31 1942). A staggering 1,046 British bombers (four from Training Command; the rest from Bomber Command) set course for Cologne in what was substantially the largest air operation ever undertaken to date. The front line strength of Bomber Command at the time was under 500, so that more than 500 of the aircraft and crews came from Operational Training Units. Forty were lost
And 116 returned damaged. Six hundred acres of Cologne were devastated. At the risk of the whole of its front line and all its reserves in a single night, Bomber Command secured its first real success against a major German target. ANF.
Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO). Air attack on Germany by British Bomber Command and US Eighth (later also US Fifteenth) Air Forces. Decided upon at the Casablanca Conference, January 1943.
Combined Chiefs of Staff. The
British Chiefs and the American Joint Chiefs of Staff acting together in meetings or by liaison during World War II to advise the Prime Minister and the President and to authorize directives to commanders-in-chief.
Combined Operations. A British inter-service command later joined by the Americans which emerged in 1940-41 from Churchill’s determination to mount commando raids. Its most famous action was the Dieppe raid of August 1942 under Mountbatten’s command.
Comintern. The Third (Communist) International, founded by Trotsky 1919, was originally meant to be a world-wide organization, independent of any particular state, for the spread of communist principles. It was based in Moscow; after Trotsky’s fall, Stalin made it the tool of Russian foreign policy, and dissolved it formally in 1943. The dissolution was a cosmetic gesture, meant to reassure the governments of the USA and UK that the USSR was not currently pursuing an anti-capitalist policy; meanwhile, such moles as Anthony Blunt and Harry Dexter White remained in place, being run by the kcjb or the gru. MF.
Commando. In the Second Boer War (1899—1902), irregular units of mounted Boer riflemen. Since 1940, battalion-sized units of specially-trained dismounted infantry (e. g.. Royal Marines Commandos).
Commonwealth Boomerang (Australian, WWII). Single-seat reconnaissance fighter/fighter-bomber. Hurriedly designed early 1942 to counter Japanese threat. Prototype flew May 29 1942; production aircraft into service from October 10 1942. Proved popular, effective and versatile, flying from bases in Australia, New Guinea and New Britain. Total production 250. One Australian-built Pratt and Whitney R-1830 S3C4-G engine; max. speed 305mph (488kph); two 20mm cannon and four 0.303in machine guns.
Commonwealth Division (Korea). The formation of a Commonwealth Division was considered early in the Korean War, but although Britain and Australia agreed in principle, Canada delayed until December 1950. The 1st Commonwealth Division was formally activated under a British commander, Maj Gen A J H Cassels, on July 28 1951. It consisted of Australian, British, Canadian, Indian and New Zealand units. The largest contingent was British and included five battalions of infantry. Canada provided an infantry brigade and Australia two infantry battalions. New Zealand was represented by a regiment of field artillery and a transport platoon. India sent the 60th (Parachute) Field Ambulance. South Africa, which had no ground forces in Korea, later sent a team of officers. The Commonwealth Division served as part of 1st Corps, Eighth Army. CM. See also Australian forces; BRITISH FORCES; NEW ZEA-
> LAND FORCES.
Company (British Army). Sub-unit of infantry battalion, commanded by a major and comprising a small HQ and three rifle platoons. In US and most other armies, “company” is used to describe similarly sized sub-units of any arm or service.
Compiegne. In a forest near this northern French town, the armistice of November 11 1918 was signed in Foch’s railway carriage. Hitler used the same scene for the signing of the French armistice on June 22 1940. Subsequently the Germans destroyed the carriage to prevent the full circle of humiliation in it.
Con Thien, Battle of (1967). Con Thien was a forward artillery base established by US Marines just south of the Demilitarized Zone.
As construction began in 1967 on McNamara’s Wall, for which Con Thien was to be the western terminus, the North Vietnamese began probing with artillery barrages and ground assaults. The main objective of especially intense North Vietnamese attacks in September was almost certainly to divert attention from plans for the upcoming Tet offensive. The People’s Army (pavn) 324B and 325C Divisions besieged elements of the US 3rd Marine Division. Concentrated strikes by B-52s and tactical air and naval support broke the siege on October 4. WST. See also “neutralize” operation.
Forced labour in Germany
Concentration camps. Established in Germany shortly after Hitler’s assumption of power in 1933. The first camps were opened near Munich and Berlin. Many of the Nazis’ political opponents were arrested and placed in “protective custody” in special camps where their “anti-social” tendencies were to be eradicated. Similarly, Jews, gypsies, vagabonds, homosexuals, pacifists, trade unionists, Jehovah’s Witnesses and even out-offavour Nazis were amongst those imprisoned in concentration camps. The outbreak of World War II brought about a radical change in the system. The original six camps in Germany were expanded and new camps were set up throughout Occupied Europe to deal with millions of Soviet prisoners of war and foreign opponents of Nazi domination. The pretence of the concentration camp as an “institute for reform” was effectively stripped away as the Nazis began the systematic extermination of “inferior races” with the implementation of the “Final Solution”. Millions of Jews were transported from all over Europe to the death camps of Poland, such as Auschwitz, Treblinka and Maidanek, where they were systematically slaughtered. In addition, some camps were developed by the SS into massive industrial complexes in which the inmates were used as slave labour. The camps varied in size and function but in each there was a common disregard for the humanity, rights and physical well-being of the prisoners who suffered as a result of disease, starvation, neglect, overwork and brutality. MS.
Condor Legion. The establishment of the Condor Legion in November 1936 formalized Nazi Germany’s support for Franco when it became clear that the Spanish Civil War would be protracted. Its total strength was to vary between 5,000 and 10,000 men. The Luftwaffe contingent played a crucial, sometimes decisive, role in the major battles of the war. Its Junkers 52 bombers and Heinkel 51 biplane fighters, increasing to four squadrons each, began to be replaced by Messerschmitt 109s and Heinkel Ills in 1937. It pioneered the use of napalm; and carpetbombing, first tried at the siege of Oviedo, was perfected at' Guernica. Apart from a general staff advisory role, army elements included heavy machine gun units, artillery, 88mm anti-aircraft guns, and Panzer Mk Is. A naval advisory staff was based on the pocket battleships Deutschland and Admiral Scheer which were used in several coastal bombardments. AB.
Coningham, Air Marshal Sir Arthur “Maori” (1895-1948). Br. From July 1941, Commander 204th Group in Cyrenaica, which became the Western Desert Air Force in October 1941; Commander Allied Tactical Air Forces during the Tunisian, Sicilian, and Italian campaigns until January 1944 when he left Italy to command 2nd Tactical during the Northwest European campaign.
Connolly, James (1868-1916). Irish. Marxist, organized dock and transport workers in Dublin into a small citizen army; led them during the abortive Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916; wounded and executed.
Conqueror. British hunter-killer nuclear-powered submarine of 4,900 tons. Sent to South Atlantic, with others, in April—May 1982, during the Falklands War. On instructions from London, she torpedoed the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano on May 2.
Conrad von Hotzendorf, Field Marshal Franz Freiherr (18521925). Austrian. As Austria’s Chief of General Staff from 1907, Conrad, encouraged by his German counterpart, von Moltke, advocated a war to bind up the crumbling Austro-Hungarian empire. In 1911 he suggested a pre-emptive strike against Italy, then embroiled in Libya, to “rectify” the Italo-Austrian frontier; in June-July 1914, his insistence on a threatening ultimatum to Serbia following the Sarajevo assassination did much to precipitate World War I. Although the Austrian army was poorly-equipped and, because of his own vacillation, slow to mobilize, Conrad launched simultaneous offensives on two fronts. The Galician campaign, which he personally coordinated, ended in disaster; in the Serbian campaign, the Austrians were decisively defeated at the Jadar river. Replaced as cgs by Arz von Straussenberg in 1917, Conrad shared command of the Austrian offensive on the Piave river, June 1918, with Borojevic von Bojna. His Eleventh Army was repulsed with heavy losses early in the battle and failed to support Borojevic’s temporary gains. RO’N.
Convoys and the convoy system.
The organization of merchant ships into groups escorted by warships for protection in time of war goes back at least to the medieval period. It had been a standby of Britain in earlier wars, but was inexplicably abandoned in the late 19th century on the supposition that steam and other technical developments had changed everything. Hard experience in World War I proved this not to be so. Convoy was adopted just in time (1917) to prevent defeat by the U-boat campaign against shipping. World War II merely reinforced the message that the convoy is the best way of destroying enemy raiders, surface and submarine, as well as protecting merchant ships. It may seem to be a defensive measure but this is not so: the convoy forms the bait to attract raiders. In the antisubmarine war, the majority of U-boats were found and sunk in the vicinity of convoys, giving far more successes than the meaningless patrolling favoured by all too many “offensive-minded” naval officers. Convoys also empty the ocean of other targets, then present too many at once.
Atlantic convoy: vital in two world wars
Even in 1914 there were convoys for troopships, and the main fleets with their destroyer escorts were in fact convoys themselves. The British convoyed the Scandinavian trade, vulnerable to German raids. The vital collier trade to France was escorted before the general adoption of convoy, forced on a reluctant Admiralty by Lloyd George. This proved a dramatic and immediate success, and before the end of the war, air escort of convoys had demonstrated its value in preventing ships being sunk.
The sinking of the liner Athenia at the beginning of World War II led the British into adopting convoy from the start. The methods of controlling merchant shipping, organizing the ports, and the rest of the infrastructure developed in 1917 were already in place and functioned well, despite an initial lack of escorts. They would be adopted by the Allies and copied by the enemy. Convoys were designated by a numerical code with a two-letter prefix depending on the port of destination or assembly - HX and SC for convoys from Halifax, Nova Scotia to the UK, OG for those from the UK to Gibraltar, PQ and QP for the outward - and homeward-bound Arctic convoys.
World History
