Submarines

Only matched Polaris capability with the SS-N-6 missile and the ya/?/?ee-class submarines of 1967. In the 1970s, the Americans concentrated on MiRving their slbm force with Poseidon and the Soviets on deploying long 4,800 mile (8,000km) range SS-N-8 SLBMS that could be fired from Delta-cass submarines in defended “bastions” close to the Soviet Union; a MiRved variant of the latter missile, the SS-N-18 appeared in 1977. In the 1980s the Americans have matched the Soviets in range with Trident and the Soviets have belatedly produced solid-fuelled slbms, the SS-N-20 mounted in the giant Typhoon submarines. Storable liquid-fuelled SLBMS remain in production in the USSR however in the shape of the SS-N-23 carried in the Delta IV. This has a higher payload than the SS-N-20, ten 100 kiloton MIRVS as opposed to six. Both France and China make and deploy their own slbms in submarines of their own design. EJG.

Submarines. As a practical weapon of war, the submarine is as old as the century. The French led the way, the Irish-American Holland close behind. The combination of internal combustion engines (the French were the first to use diesels, and also tried steam) for surface propulsion and battery-driven electric motors when submerged: the combined use of hydroplanes and ballast tanks for submerging and surfacing; all these were well established during the first decade of the century. In World War I the submarine established itself as the ideal commerce raider and a threat to all surfaced warships. Submarines grew in size '(German “U-cruisers”), were shown to be ideal minelayers (Russia began this), the Italians built midgets and the British had antisubmarine submarines optimized for underwater performance.

The interwar years saw increasing reliability rather than innovation, and the submarines that fought World War II were mostly lineal developments of their predecessors (German Type VII and IX, British “S” and “T” classes, and the bigger American and Japanese submarines). British, Germans and Japanese built midget submarines (X-craft, Biber, Marder etc.) for various purposes. The German submarine arm was the biggest innovator and paved the way for postwar developments by turning submersibles into true submarines by the use of snorkel, streamlining and increased battery power to produce the Type XXI and XXIII boats. The British carried on German experiments with turbines powered by hydrogen peroxide after the war, but it was the Americans, in developing nuclear-powered submarines, who took the process to its logical conclusion. By then putting intercontinental ballistic missiles in such craft, they produced what is so far the ultimate warship. DJL.

Subversion. A vital weapon of political warfare: sapping citizens’ allegiance to their existing government in favour of another, soe in its brief life, and the kgb over a much longer term, have recorded major successes in this field. The weapon is usually handled in such secrecy that those doing the bulk of the work — Lenin called them “useful fools” - are unaware of their task.

Sudetenland. The German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia which was ceded to Germany as a result of the Munich Agreement.

Suez Canal (Canal Zone). Following the defeat of Arabi Pasha at Tel-el-Kebir in 1882, Egypt became a de facto British Protectorate. Empire troops garrisoned the Canal Zone against Turkish incursions during World War I and British influence was consolidated by the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. British strategic interests governed the use of the Canal throughout World War II and postwar British governments sought to retain this influence in the face of increasing Soviet interest in the Middle East.

Rising Arab nationalism in the early 1950s led to the fall of King Farouk and the declaration of an Egyptian Republic by President Neguib in 1953. Faced by mounting Arab pressures, Britain signed a new Treaty in 1954 agreeing to evacuate the Canal Zone. The British finally left Port Said on June 13 1956. Nasser, having supplanted Neguib as President in October 1954, now denied use of the Canal to Israel and sought loans for building the High Dam at Aswan. Money was promised by the World Bank, Britain and the USA, but when the USSR offered to lend $1,200 million at low interest, the USA and Britain withdrew their offers. Nasser responded by nationalizing the Suez Canal on July 26 1956. MH.

Suez Canal, Turkish attack on

(January 1915) see egypt and

PALESTINE CAMPAIGN.

Suez Crisis. Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26 1956 was accompanied by increased Egyptian hostility towards Israel, whose ships were banned from using the canal and denied use of their new port of Eilat by Egyptian batteries placed at the entrance to the Straits of Tiran. On July 29 the British, French and US governments conferred urgently. Anthony Eden, the British Prime Minister, obsessed with personal dislike of Nasser and apparently unaware of his newly found stature throughout the Arab world, pressed for military action to unseat the Egyptian government. In August the British government started to recall reservists and to prepare an expeditionary force. Following a conference of all interested parties in London (the Egyptians declined to attend), Australian Premier Sir Robert Menzies was sent to Cairo for abortive talks with Nasser. Tension increased throughout the Middle East, although the Egyptians soon showed that they were capable of running the Canal efficiently, even without many of the Canal Company’s European pilots. After further military discussions, Britain and France announced a joint Task Force command structure in mid-August. The Supreme Allied commander was to be Gen Sir Charles Keight-ley (c-in-c British Middle East Land Forces). His Deputy was Vice Adm Barjot (c-in-c French Mediterranean Fleet). Lt Gen Sir Hugh Stockwell was appointed Commander Land Forces, with Gen Andre Beaufre as his deputy. Commander Allied Naval Forces was Vice Adm D F Durnford-Slater.