SULAYHIDS

The Sulayhids, a Yemenite dynasty in close relationship with the Fatimid caliphate of Egypt, ruled Yemen between AH 439/1047 CE and AH 532/1138 CE. The earliest Fatimid base had been in Yemen when the Isma'ili da‘i Ibn Hawshab Mansur al-Yaman declared his mission at Mt. Masar near San‘a’ in 268/881 and started conquering many parts of northern Yemen in preparation for the advent of the Fatimid caliphate there. However, the Fatimid al-Mahdi chose North Africa for the establishment of his caliphate, and Yemen, on purpose, was abandoned politically, although a mission (da‘wa) continued to exist there. When, in the eleventh century, to face the Seljuk challenge, the Fatimids entered into a thick confrontation with the ‘Abbasid caliphate, their interest in Yemen was revived as a base for its trade with India to compete with that of the ‘Abbasids in that region, and also because the Fatimid Mediterranean trade declined because of the Zirid defiance in North Africa in league with the ‘Abbasid-Seljuk entente. This brought the Sulayhids into prominence, helped by the Fatimids, to establish themselves in Yemen on their behalf.

‘Ali ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Ali, of the Sulayhi family, belonging to the Yam branch of the Hamdan tribe, was the son of a Shafi‘i qadi in the Haraz region west of San‘a'. He was converted to Ismailism by the then incumbent of the Fatimid da‘wa in Yemen, Sulayman ibn ‘Abd Allah of the Zawahi family. In 429/1038, at a pilgrimage at Mecca, ‘Ali gathered enough followers to declare his mission on behalf of the Fatimids and to embark on a campaign of conquests that culminated in the taking of San‘a' in 439/1047 from the Yu‘firids. By 455/1063, he had conquered all of

Yemen. About this the near-contemporary historian Umara wrote: ‘‘By the end of 455 H. he had conquered all the plains and mountains; all the lands and waters of Yemen, the like of which had not been seen either in the Jahiliyya or Islam.’’

Exactly at that time, Fatimid Egypt was passing through a great crisis because of a long-drawn-out famine (al-shidda al-‘uzma) and the ravages of a soldier of fortune, Nasir al-Dawla. ‘Ali sent a prolonged embassy under his da‘i Lamak ibn Malik al-Hammadi from 454/1062 to 459/1067 to the court of the Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir bi-Allah (427-487/ 1036-1094) at Cairo. Lamak was lodged at the Dar al-‘Ilm (Academy of Science), the headquarters of the Chief Da‘i al-Mu’ayyad fi al-din al-Shirazi (d. 470/ 1077). It seems that this embassy was responsible for many decisions. ‘Ali wanted to visit the Fatimid court as a savior from its crisis, but he was prevented from doing so. ‘Ali had wanted to control Mecca and its Sharifate. He was dissuaded from it and was instead encouraged to conquer Hadramawt. ‘Ali wanted that his family would be confirmed in the da‘wa as da‘i-kings. This was agreed upon, but an autonomous da‘wa was set up under the Sulayhid sovereigns. It is possible that the process of transferring the da‘wa literature to the Yemen began at this time, and so also the strengthening of the da‘wa in India under Yemeni control, thus securing the Egypt-Yemen-India trade route.

Without waiting for the Imam’s permission, ‘Ali started on his journey to Egypt via Mecca, where he went for pilgrimage at the end of 459 (early 1067). He was assassinated there by the forces of Sa‘id, the Najahid king of Zabid. ‘Ali’s wife, Asma bint Shihab, was taken prisoner.

‘Ali was succeeded by Ahmad al-Mukarram, his second son. His first son, Muhammad al-A‘azz, had predeceased him by a year. Al-Mukarram rescued his mother by defeating the Najahid Sa‘id in a battle that also resulted in his paralysis. In 467/1074, he had to retire to Dhu Jibla near Ibb, leaving the affairs of the state in the hands of his wife, al-Sayyida al-Hurra al-Malika Arwa, who resided probably in Haraz, while San‘a’ was put under the charge of ‘Imran ibn al-Fadl al-Yami, along with Abu l-Su’ud ibn As‘ad ibn Shihab, the brother of queen-mother Asma. Asma died later in the same year (467/1074).

That year also saw the establishment of the absolute power of the Armenian military leader Badr al-Jamali in Egypt. From then until his death in 470/ 1078, the Chief Da‘i al-Mu’ayyad fi l-din al-Shirazi was probably responsible for bringing Badr al-Jamali and Queen Arwa in close collaboration with each other. Badr needed the adherence of Yemen, and the queen needed her autonomy. The maintenance of this Egypt-Yemen entente explains the acceptance by the Yemeni da‘wa of the caliphate of al-Musta‘li, the nominee of Badr’s son al-Afdal after the death of the caliph al-Mustansir. The older son of al-Mustan-sir, Nizar, was bypassed in Fatimid succession but was supported by the Da‘i Hasan ibn Sabbah who established a rival Nizari Da‘wa at Alamut in Iran.

When al-Mukarram died in 477/1084, the queen faced a rivalry between the two Qadis—‘Imran ibn al-Fadl and Lamak ibn Malik. Imran was stationed in San‘a’ and was the commander-in-chief of the Sulayhid army. However, he once insulted the memory of al-Mukarram’s father and fell out of grace of the king and the queen, although he later fought with the Sulayhids against the Najahids and was killed in battle. ‘Imran’s family would later control San‘a’ and found a Hamdanid kingdom there. The queen, on the other hand, was supported by the da‘wa under Lamak and then under his son, Yahya. Although the queen was the sole de facto ruler, the official ruler was her minor son, ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Mustansir. However, she was at this time given by Imam al-Mustansir the title of Hujja, making her the highest religious leader in her region. The queen was supported by two military chiefs—Amir Abu Himyar Saba ibn Ahmad of the Sulayhid family and Amir Abu l-Rabi‘ ‘Amir ibn Sulayman of the Zawahi family—both in constant conflict with each other, thus weakening the Sulayhid state. In the years 491-492/1098-1099, the two Amirs died. The da‘i Lamak ibn Malik and the queen’s two sons, ‘Ali and al-Muzaffar, also died about this time, leaving the queen at the mercy of another Amir, al-Mufaddal al-Himyari, who guarded her treasure at the fortress of Ta‘kar but was also responsible for creating many enemies against her by his constant warfare. On his death in 504/1110, Egypt sent an Armenian commander, Ibn Najib al-Dawla, as a da‘i to reign in the chaotic situation in Yemen. Soon the local tribes revolted against him and the authority of the queen was much constrained by him. In any case he was drowned in the Red Sea, probably at the unavowed instigation of the queen. Another administrator was appointed at this time from the Sulayhid family, ‘Ali ibn ‘Abd Allah, with the title of Fakhr al-khilafa. The queen, however, relied on the Da‘wa under Yahya ibn Lamak and its military arm, Sultan al-Khattab ibn al-Hasan al-Hamdani, the baron of Jurayb in the Hajur district. He is also called a da‘i, for many works of the Yemeni da‘wa were authored by him. He became the queen’s defender of faith and the protector of her realm. He never attained the position of a Da‘i mutlaq under the queen as a Hujja, which went to his mentor—the Da‘i Dhu’ayb ibn Musa al-Wadi‘i—on Da‘i Yahya’s death in 520/1126.

In the meantime, in Egypt, the imam-caliph al-Mustansir was followed by al-Musta‘li (487-495/ 1094-1101), and then by al-Amir (495-524/1101-1130), who was assassinated by the Nizaris. On Amir’s death, Queen Arwa recognized his minor son Tayyib as imam, thus severing her ties with the new Fatimid ruler al-Hafiz and his successors. Tayyib, in hiding, was then never heard from. Two years later, in 526/1132, the Tayyibi da‘wa was declared in Yemen with da‘i Dhu’ayb as the first da‘i Mutlaq—a rank that continued to signify the headship of the da‘wa in Yemen and India, independent of the Fatimid caliphate. The last years of Queen Arwa saw the disintegration of her empire. She died in 532/1138, leaving in her will a large fortune to the absent Imam Tayyib, that is, to the da‘wa. Soon after, in a year’s time, her chief military supporter, the da‘i Khattab, also died.

The Hamdanid dynasty of San‘a’ and the Zuray’id dynasty of Aden supported the Hafizi da‘wa of the Fatimids till all three of them were terminated by the Ayyubid conquest of Egypt and Yemen during 567-569/1171-1173. Under Ayyubid rule, the Tayyibi Ismailis remained as a community, not involved in politics, and thus survived till today in Yemen and India, preserving the Da‘wa structure and the Fatimid literary heritage.

Abbas Hamdani