Siberian archaeological cave sites had a significant carnivore presence, and as such probably underwent stratigraphic disturbances as well as bone introductions unrelated to human occupants. Removal of bone is also possible. Ovodov recalls a case in point that occurred during the 1973 excavation of Varvarina Gora. A one-year-old dog (Laika), wandering in the excavated area, grabbed a neck vertebra of the rhinoceros that had been buried in the earth for 34 000 years and tried to escape with it into the surrounding forest.
While all sorts of large carnivore remains have been found in Siberian cave and open sites, both archaeological and paleontological, we emphasize the hyena contribution to site disturbance because their remains were much more commonly found than those of other carnivores. Brown bear remains have been found in a number of caves; these mostly appear to have been chosen as denning sites or natural vertical karst “traps”
(Ovodov 1977a). In addition to the quantity of hyena remains, our emphasis on hyenas as a major potential source of site bioturbation does not exclude garbage-seeking or denning bears or wolves, but also includes the bone-damage signature as defined by the characteristics identified in the prolific presence of hyenas in Razboinich’ya Cave.
Burrowing activity by hyenas likely disturbed stratigraphy. The “natural” taphoceno-sis (assemblage of bones and teeth found buried together) was likely altered to various degrees within a site. Understanding the complicated stratigraphic situations in the Pleistocene Altai cave sites has been recognized as a serious problem (Derevianko et al. 1997a, 2001d). However, no previous workers have considered whether hyenas contributed to the complexity. We feel that hyenas may have been a very significant source of stratigraphic disturbance and bioturbation, based on comparisons of sites where diagnostic tool types are out of stratigraphic expectations (Turner et al. 2001b), as well as judging from the burrowing and denning activities of modern African hyenas (Brain 1981, Mills 1990). Although climatic conditions differed between the African and Siberian habitats, we propose that the open-country dens of the African hyenas were less adaptive in the frozen tracts of open Siberia. The burrowing discussed below may have been used in the Siberian sites along with simple dug-out basins in cave fill as an added means to ward off the cold of winter wind.
Sticking with thinking about intra-site disturbance lets us make a comparison of Siberian cave stratigraphy, especially Denisova Cave, and Aleutian shell middens. Both types of site have a striking similarity. In Denisova Cave the Holocene strata are strikingly apparent and horizontal (Fig. 3.10). The underlying Pleistocene deposits have almost no recognizable stratigraphy. We propose that this dichotomy is due to the bioturbation of the Pleistocene deposits by hyenas. Aleut shell middens have almost no recognizable stratigraphy in the prehistoric levels, but historic strata are clear and easy to recognize. This was most probably due to repeated prehistoric pithouse construction that more-or-less ceased in historic times due to the majority of Aleuts having been taken away in the summer and fall to hunt sea otters for Russian fur hunters. Without men in the villages when house construction would have most likely occurred, there would be very little disturbance. Hence, we propose that in Siberia the stratigraphic mixing was caused by burrowing hyenas. In the Aleutians it was caused by men constructing pithouses. The bioturbation in Siberia ceased with the extinction of the hyena. It ceased in the Aleutians with the Aleut males being taken away by Russians to hunt for sea otters in the distant coastal waters of British Columbia and California.
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