The pedagogical features described above strengthen each of the thirteen chapters in Evolution and Prehistory, serving as threads that tie the text together and help students feel the holistic nature of the discipline. In addition, the engagingly presented concepts themselves provide students with a solid foundation in the principles and practices of anthropology today.
The text in hand has a significantly different feel to it than previous editions. All chapters have been revised extensively—the data, examples, and Suggested Readings updated, the chapter openers refreshed with new, up-to-date Challenge Issues and related photographs, and the writing further chiseled to make it all the more clear, lively, and engaging. Also, in addition to providing at least one new entry in the much-used Questions for Reflection at the end of the chapter, we have introduced a new question in each Biocultural Connection box.
Beyond these overall changes, each chapter has undergone specific modifications and additions. The inventory presented below provides brief previews of the chapter contents and changes in this edition.
CHAPTER 1: THE ESSENCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
The book’s opening chapter introduces students to the holistic discipline of anthropology, the unique focus of each of its fields, and the common philosophical perspective and methodological approaches they share. Touching briefly on fieldwork and the comparative method, along with ethical issues and examples of applied anthropology in all four fields, this chapter provides a foundation for understanding the methods shared by all four fields of anthropology. It also prepares students for the in-depth discussions of methods in pri-matology and the methods for studying the past shared by archaeology and paleoanthropology that follow in later chapters.
A new Challenge Issue question dealing with global aspects of surrogate births that demonstrates the ways that an integrated holistic anthropological perspective contributes to the ability to negotiate the new technologies and practices of our ever-more interconnected world. The updated descriptions of the anthropological fields that follow take into account the excellent suggestions of our reviewers. The section on linguistic anthropology has been expanded to include linguistic relativity, sociolinguistics, the work to save endangered languages, and the ways that languages continually change. The overview of physical anthropology was reorganized to improve the flow and includes an expanded discussion of developmental and physiological adaptation. Primate conservation issues are also highlighted. The archaeology section now includes historical archaeology and the work of James Deetz along with mention of other archaeological subspecializations. Technological innovations in archaeology such as GIS and GPR are included. Philippe Bourgois’s work on the urban drug scene is included to illustrate range of the field sites open to ethnographers today.
The chapter also rejects the characterization of a liberal bias in anthropology, identifying instead the discipline’s critical evaluation of the status quo. The ideological diversity among anthropologists is explored while emphasizing their shared methodology that avoids ethnocentrism. An expanded section on ethics includes the history of ethics, the changes of the AAA Code in response to classified or corporate fieldwork, and the effects of emergent technology. We emphasize the shared global environment in the section on globalization, with an updated Globalscape on organ trafficking.
CHAPTER 2: GENETICS AND EVOLUTION
This revised chapter on genetics and evolution grounds students in basic human biological processes including the evolutionary forces that worked over millennia to shape us into the species we are today. By moving some material to later chapters, we are able to add new concepts and diagrams that will serve to clarify and simplify the genetic mechanisms at work. The new Challenge Issue focusing on DNA fingerprinting, genetic determinism, and identity captures students’ attention regarding the relevancy of genetics. The Chapter Preview questions have been expanded to make the genetic material more accessible. Sections on hominin taxonomy and altruism and other models of behavior have been moved to other chapters to make room for a more detailed but accessible discussion of genetics and evolution. This includes more on the background of the development of evolutionary theory including Cuvier’s catastrophism, Lamarck’s inheritance of acquired characteristics, and Lyell’s principles of geology.
This edition includes a discussion of chromatids to clarify students’ understanding of DNA replication, mitosis, and meiosis. Examples of classic Mendelian traits that students can explore with their relatives and thought questions accompanying the figures will help students master this material. New figures on Punnett squares, a karyotype illustrating the locus of a variety of common genes, and the alleles using sickle-cell disease as an example will make these concepts more accessible. The discussion of forces of evolution includes a new section illustrating genetic drift and founder effects featuring the achromotopsia on Pinge-lap Island in Micronesia. A new section on adaptation and physical variation introduces the concept of clines. Finally, a new Anthropology Applied feature on global infertility as a human rights issue features the work of Marcia Inhorn.
CHAPTER 3: LIVING PRIMATES
With this edition, our original chapter on the living primates was expanded into two separate chapters. This allowed for more material on the vital issue of primate conservation as we survey the living primates and the place of humans among them. Our expanded section on primate conservation includes the scope of the threat, description of diverse conservation methods, along with coverage of some of the some successes such as the recovery of golden lion tamarin populations. A new Anthropology Applied on primate conservation features the work of bonobo specialist Jef Dupain and the Congo Heartland Project of the African Wildlife Foundation. Michele Goldsmith explores the ethics of field research in the chapter’s Original Study. The chapter’s Globalscape connects cell phone recycling to the preservation of endangered gorilla habitats. A new figure presenting the biogeography of the primates includes the twenty-five most endangered primate species.
In terms of our survey of living primates, we include an in-depth discussion of primate taxonomy including the hot spots, alternate taxonomies, and controversies (tarsier question and hominid/hominin question). The clade/ grade distinction is described, and the term clade is added to the discussion and running glossary. Our figure comparing the skeletons of bison and gorilla has been revised to help students understand how skeletal analyses are conducted. Moving primate behavior to its own chapter has allowed for more coverage of non-hominoid living primates (lemurs/lorises, tarsiers, Old and New World monkeys). Notably, Karen Strier’s work with the muriqui is included in the discussion of New World monkeys that provides insights into field methods and primate demographics. A new Biocultural Connection by Meredith Small focuses on primate vision and the human affinity for the color red.
CHAPTER 4: PRIMATE BEHAVIOR
This new, beautifully illustrated chapter is devoted exclusively to primate behavior, allowing for an expanded treatment of the topic. The sophistication of primate behavior is framed by ethical questions regarding the use of primates in medical research that open and close the chapter. While the chapter emphasizes the great apes, examples from other anthropoid primates are included in this discussion. A new section critically discusses the use of baboon studies to reconstruct lifeways of our ancestors. New material on primate communication includes syntax in vervet monkeys and dialect in marmosets along with new material on social learning among macaques. Our discussion of communication also includes a discussion of altruism and an expanded section on the communication abilities of the bonobo Kanzi. Various forms of primate social organization are outlined along with their proposed links to biological features such as sexual dimorphism. These and other theories about primate reproductive biology are analyzed in terms of the potential influence of contemporary gender norms, an approach pioneered by primatologist Linda Fedigan. A new Biocultural Connection on arrested development in male orangutans by Anne Nacey Maggioncaldo and Robert M. Sapolsky complements this discussion. Along with many new, updated, and classic references, this chapter contains all new Questions for Reflection and Suggested Readings.
CHAPTER 5: FIELD METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY AND PALEOANTHROPOLOGY
This methods chapter clearly conveys the key methodological techniques employed by archaeologists and pa-leoanthropologists as they study human prehistory. We open with the question of shared cultural heritage and ownership of the past through a new Challenge Issue on the Bamiyan Buddhas of Afghanistan destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. We have streamlined this comprehensive chapter with this edition to make room for technological advances and the ethical issues that have arisen from these new technologies. The chapter contains a new figure to illustrate the concept of stratification and a complete description of the ecofacts and features used to study the past. We cover new technologies such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR), geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing techniques, and an expanded section on underwater archaeology. We describe the use of CT scans in bioarchaeology, forensics, and paleoanthropology and make explicit the links between bioarchaeology and forensics. The chapter includes more coverage on the purpose of NAGPRA. We also explore the issues surrounding the digitization of human remains and aboriginal responses to museum efforts to do this in contexts without NAGPRA, as seen in the current controversy between the University of Vienna and the Ju/’hoansi people.
An Anthropology Applied box on cultural resource management by John Crock, an Original Study on the chance discovery of the skeleton of a young girl frozen in the ice of Barrow, Alaska, and a Biocultural Connection on Kennewick Man all provide insights into the complexities involved in investigating the past. They also explore the philosophical approach necessary for successful collaboration between scientists and local people.
CHAPTER 6: MACROEVOLUTION AND THE EARLY PRIMATES
Building on the evolutionary principles laid out in Chapter 2, this chapter provides an excellent overview of macroevolutionary mechanisms along with a concise discussion of mammalian primate evolution. While introducing students to concepts such as heterochrony, homeobox genes, anagenesis, and cladogenesis, through clear descriptions and diagrams, we also discuss the comparative approach employed by evolutionary scientists.
The Eocene specimen “Ida” (Darwinius masillae) discovered in 2009 is featured in a variety of contexts. The chapter’s Challenge Issue discusses the recent popularity of human evolutionary studies in the media, asking how the self-correcting nature of science can function against a backdrop of “tweets,” Google logos, and unprecedented prices for fossil specimens paid by museums to private collectors. A new Biocultural Connection by Meredith Small explores the significance of the “Ida” specimen.
Another chapter theme is the importance of understanding evolutionary processes for the survival of the planet. In a new Original Study, leading global ecologist Sir Robert May explores the relationship between human practices and the extinction of other species. Against this philosophical backdrop, we also consider the mechanics of the molecular regulation of variational change as well as punctuated change using recent discoveries regarding Darwin’s finches. A new figure accompanies this discussion. Another new figure compares the skull shape and size of fossil prosimians and fossil anthropoids. A revised timeline and figure of the evolutionary relationships among the anthropoid primates take into account the potential new fossil gorilla evidence discovered in 2007 (Chororapithecus abyssinicus). More images of fossil specimens are included in the chapter compared to previous editions so that students can “see” as well as read about our mammalian primate heritage.
CHAPTER 7: THE FIRST BIPEDS
This up-to-date chapter explores bipedalism, the distinctive feature of the human evolutionary line, concentrating on the australopithecines and other species that inhabited Africa before the appearance of the genus Homo. It contains the new evidence and analyses published in 2009 suggesting that forest-dwelling Ardipithecus is the common ancestor to all later bipeds. It also integrates this notion into the hypotheses regarding the savannah adaptation of our ancestors. We introduce students to how paleoanthropologists go about reconstructing human evolutionary history. A new Original Study, “Ankles of the Australopithecines” by John Hawks, exemplifies how pa-leoanthropologists use comparative morphological studies to reconstruct the past. Chapter figures and glossary terms are linked to this Original Study.
Current ethical issues also find their way into the chapter, such as the controversy regarding the current U. S. tour of the 3.2-million-year-old “Lucy” fossils. A new figure compares gracile and robust australopithecines, and a revised figure also indicates all the major australopithecine sites. The Biocultural Connection on evolution and human birth explores the ways that contemporary Western practices influenced the paleoanthropological reconstruction of the human birth pattern. The Anthropologists of Note feature explores the extraordinary contributions of Louis and Mary Leakey to the discipline of paleoanthropology.
CHAPTER 8: EARLY HOMO AND THE ORIGINS OF CULTURE
This chapter traces the genus Homo from its origins 2.5 or so million years ago up until the Upper Paleolithic. Taking a “lumping” approach, it divides the fossil record into the three divisions of Homo habilis, Homo erectus, and archaic Homo sapiens. At the same time we explore the differences between lumping and splitting fossil specimens into numerous taxa and discuss the relationship between biological change and cultural change in human evolutionary history. The place of the Neandertals in this history closes the chapter. The chapter contains sufficient detail for an introductory course on human origins while streamlining the presentation from previous editions and avoiding redundancy.
Many new figures allow for material to be communicated clearly and efficiently. For example, the new figure comparing KNM ER 1470 and KNM ER 1813 illustrates the taxonomic issue of lumping or splitting in early Homo. The new discoveries from Gona, including the well-preserved pelvis, are included as is the newly discovered Homo erectus footprint trail from Kenya. Middle Paleolithic Homo from throughout the world is surveyed in this chapter while the question of modern human origins is saved for Chapter 9. A nuanced discussion of sex and gender in the fossil record is supported by a Biocultural Connection on the contributions of female paleoanthropologists to the discipline, along with the recent revisioning of the “man the hunter” hypothesis as “man the hunted” in the chapter’s Original Study. The Anthropology Applied box demonstrates the unique strengths of stone tools through their use by modern-day surgeons.
CHAPTER 9: THE GLOBAL EXPANSION OF HOMO SAPIENS AND THEIR TECHNOLOGY
This chapter explores the fossil, genetic, and cultural evidence used in theories to account for modern human origins. It also explores the cultural explosion characteristic of the Upper Paleolithic and the spread of humans throughout the globe. To make space for an in-depth discussion of the multiregional continuity versus out of Africa models of modern human origins, we have streamlined and reorganized material to avoid redundancy. Rich with new and revised figures, the chapter also includes the latest discoveries such as the Venus figurine from Hohle Fels Cave as well as the flute from the same site. New research on cooking and brain metabolism is included as is recent research on the peopling of the Americas. A new section on gender and archaeology features Margaret Conkey’s work as a feminist practicing archaeology and the contemporary projections of gender norms onto Venus figurines.
The chapter’s boxed features chronicle paleoanthropology from throughout the globe. The Anthropologists of Note features Ethiopian paleoanthropologist Berhane Asfaw and Chinese paleoanthropologist Xinzhi Wu. The Biocultural Connection looks to contemporary hunter-gatherers, whose lifeways have not departed as glaringly from our Paleolithic template, in order to promote human health. The Original Study details the methods used by prehistoric artists to paint cave walls in southwestern France. A new Globalscape on World Heritage sites focuses on Willandra Lakes in Australia and the importance of this place to the Aboriginal people of the region, as well as to paleoanthropologists and the global community.
CHAPTER 10: THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION: THE DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Chapter 10 concentrates on the drastic cultural changes that occurred at the Neolithic transition with the domestication of plants and animals along with the development of permanent settlements in villages. The unexpected deleterious health consequences of this “Neolithic revolution” are explored throughout the chapter along with the complex relationship between food production and population growth.
The new Challenge Issue featuring a contemporary Hmong embroidery depicting the mythical origins of agriculture opens the chapter. The art illustrates that global food flows have a long history. We include a new section on primary and secondary innovation, as well as the recent discovery of the earliest pottery from Yuchanyan Cave, located in China’s Hunan Province, and current research providing new dates for earliest dairying. Several revised figures, such as ones on the Fertile Crescent and the domestication of corn from teosinte, improve clarity and provide richer content.
Several sections of the chapter have been expanded. These include the contemporary application of terra preta, the rich black earth produced by Amazonian farmers and described in the chapter’s Anthropology Applied box; the impact of colonialism on American Indian cultures; and the ongoing health consequences of the Neolithic transition. Table 10.1 has been updated to show the incidence of selected zoonotic diseases globally along with prevention strategies. A new Globalscape on swine flu and industrial farming practices illustrates the consequences of these large-scale operations.
CHAPTER 11: THE EMERGENCE OF CITIES AND STATES
This chapter draws parallels between ancient and modern cities and states while exploring the origins of this very human way of life. It contains a variety of new figures and examples that drive home the points about the beginnings of cities and states and the many facets, both positive and negative, of these social organizations that have endured to the present. Continuity is shown through factors ranging from social stratification, to the social distribution of sickness and health, to artisanal techniques.
Carneiro’s theory on the development of states is described in more detail in this revised chapter. In terms of ancient sites, the figure of Teotihuacan is revised for clarity, and a new figure of Tikal shows the major monuments and causeways. The chapter’s Original Study on El Pilar is revised and updated. We discuss the Cahokia mounds as an example of the both the presence of cities and the conscious choice by North American Indians not to engage in conquest relationships.
New figures on cuneiform writing and bronze lost-wax casting illustrate the details of these innovations. Sections on social stratification and disease are expanded to include both the impact within a given society and the effects of conquest. This expanded coverage includes the impact of infectious disease brought about by European colonizers of the Americas, we include a new Biocultural Connection from Charles Mann’s book 1491. The chapter’s Anthropology Applied box and Globalscape both feature the link between contemporary military action and preservation of ancient cultural heritage.
CHAPTER 12: MODERN HUMAN DIVERSITY: RACE AND RACISM
This chapter gives an overview of race and racism, in the science of the past as well as current problems. With the politics of diversity changing globally, an understanding of the true nature of biological variation has become indispensable. The contributions of anthropology to debunking race as a biological category—starting with the work of Franz Boas and Ashley Montagu—are complemented by the contemporary work of cutting-edge biological anthropologists such as Jonathan Marks (Original Study) and Fatimah Jackson (Anthropologist of Note). We emphasize the interaction of the cultural and biological throughout the chapter in topics ranging from skin color to intelligence to G-6-PD deficiency as detailed in the Biocultural Connection.
With this edition, we include the history of the Mexican casta system and the contemporary tragedy of Rwandan genocide. The section on race and human evolution is expanded and includes a discussion of scientific and pseudo-scientific attempts to predict behavior by physical phenotypic characteristics. The section concludes with neurological research dealing with the brain and stereotypical thinking. Informative new illustrations include a demonstration of the differences between a normal female pelvis and one deformed by bone disease and a contemporary graphic artist’s views on 19th - and early 20th-century racial hierarchies.
CHAPTER 13: HUMAN ADAPTATION TO A CHANGING WORLD
From battles between local farmers and multinational corporations for water rights in India to new findings on the toxic effects of plastics, this chapter continues to engage with the ways humans adapt to the human-made environment. The chapter weaves together the anthropological study of adaptation by biological and medical anthropologists with advanced work in evolutionary medicine and the political ecology of health and disease. It examines the way that human alteration of the environment is leading to disease in our species and how political and social forces impact the distribution of health and disease in human populations.
New to this chapter are global flows of HIV/AIDS and prevention strategies and a Globalscape concerning an initiative incorporating public health education into radio and television soap operas. This edition features a significantly expanded section on the impact of environmental estrogens on human disease. Our emphasis on the relationship between economics and fertility in women continues. Several of the straightforward biological adaptations also explored in this chapter are now supported with new figures, including an illustration of the relationship between altitude and partial pressure of oxygen and illustrations of Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule. In addition, a new section explores the highly topical issue of vaccinations and so-called pox parties.
The work of reproductive ecologist Peter Ellison linking human fertility to the environment is featured in the Anthropologist of Note box. Cross-cultural differences in sickness categories are featured in Katherine Dettwyler’s stirring piece on infection, malnutrition, and Down syndrome. The Biocultural Connection features the impact of industrial farming pesticides on child development. Throughout this chapter, we explore the biocultural theme characteristic of the entire text as connections are drawn between human health and political and economic forces both globally and locally.
World History
