Religion

Given the large geographic area of the Indus cities and the hierarchy of settlements, it is surprising that distinctive shared symbols and distinctive ritual objects are found in all major settlements. These symbols are thought to reflect a shared ideology that in conjunction with economic strategies helped to integrate the many different communities living in the major cities and surrounding settlements. Some of the more common artifacts and symbols are similar styles of terracotta figurines of animals that may have been used for

Symbolic sacrificial purposes. Human figurines of males and females with ornaments and elaborate headdresses may represent fertility or other specific deities (Figure 11) Various geometric symbols such as the stepped cross, swastika, endless knot, and intersecting circle motif are found on pottery as well as pendants and seals. Narrative scenes on seals depict outdoor ceremonies that took place under the sacred pipal or fig tree, worship of deities in trees or seated in yogic position on a throne, processions with sacred animals, the practice of animal sacrifice, and possibly even human sacrifice. Other scenes depict what may be important myths and stories. Local cults may have been practiced in specific regions while a more established state religion appears to have emerged in the major cities. At Mohenjo-daro and Dholavira, stone sculptures of male figures have been found that may represent clan leaders. In the past, these were incorrectly called ‘priest-king’ images.

The most direct evidence for ritual practice is found in the cemetery burials at major sites such as Harappa, Dholavira, and Mohenjo-daro, as well as some smaller settlements such as Lothal, Rupar, and Kalibangan. Most burials were made in a north-south-oriented rectangular pit with the head to the north. The body was placed in a wooden coffin or wrapped in a shroud, and laid out on top of or surrounded by burial pottery and other offerings needed for the after-life (Figure 12). Although these burials do not contain large amounts of material wealth, they do contain distinctive pottery and ornaments that would not have been available to common people. The health status and mature age profiles of the buried individuals also indicate that they were a privileged class. The delicate shell bangles found buried with many of the women also indicate that over time they became less and less involved in manual labor, clearly an indication of elite status. Although there are no ‘royal burials’, the recent excavation of a burial complex at Dholavira suggests that some individuals were interred with gold ornaments, a tradition that was not practiced in the major cities and towns. Cemeteries that have been discovered represent only a small portion of the population, and the rest of the urban population would have been disposed of by other means that have left no archaeological trace. This burial pattern is one more indication of social differentiation and hierarchy.