The damage caused by the looting of archaeological sites is not just a matter of scholarly concern. There can be serious social and economic consequences. For some communities and states, archaeological objects can function symbolically as material constituents of cultural identity, or they might be imbued with a spiritual significance. Their expropriation can help to weaken group identity and cohesion. In the United States, this issue was recognized by the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, which acknowledges that the past appropriation of Native American human remains and cultural objects by nonindigenous individuals and institutions was illegal, and that, where possible, such materials should be returned to the possession of their rightful owners. Any future finds on federal or Native American land will similarly be subject to the ownership of the appropriate group (see Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act).
The fact that archaeological artifacts are looted because of their monetary value cannot be overlooked. Often, sites are looted by poor subsistence farmers, and many people are uncomfortable describing the usually illegal excavation of artifacts that are sold for subsistence purposes as looting. The term ‘subsistence digging’ has been suggested as a preferred alternative. Any effort to stop subsistence digging in order to maintain the integrity of archaeological sites can be construed as valuing archaeological heritage over human life. It has been suggested that the characterization of such digging as ‘looting’ criminalizes already deprived communities, and subsistence diggers should be regarded as having a legitimate, economic interest in archaeological heritage. As a long-term subsistence option, however, such digging is unsustainable as the archaeological sites are quickly worked out.
The illegal trade offers many opportunities for criminals. On the ground this might simply mean that the people digging the sites are breaking the law. But further up the trading chain there are opportunities for more extensive criminal involvement through activities such as corruption and money laundering, and it is increasingly being recognized in Iraq and Afghanistan that the money derived from the sale of antiquities can be used to purchase weapons. Thus although in the past the trade in illicit antiquities was seen to be a victimless crime, this is no longer the case.
World History
