Artifact Archaeologically or historically interesting human-made object, such as a tool, weapon, or ornament. historical archaeology A branch of archaeological study and interpretation that deals with literate societies the objects and events since the beginnings of recorded history. soil zone A vertical or horizontal region of soil with common characteristics.
Stratification An arrangement or deposition of sediment or sedimentary rocks in a sequence of layers (strata).
As the name implies, historical archaeology is a subfield of archaeology in which the practitioners use at least two distinct but related sources of information: archaeologically retrieved data (artifacts, features, soil zones) and historical materials (personal accounts, governmental records, maps). The sources available to a historical archaeologist often will depend on the period of history being examined. Archaeologists investigating an outpost of the Roman Empire in Great Britain may have access to fewer sources than archaeologists excavating a twentieth-century farmstead in the American Midwest. In all cases, however, the historical archaeologist’s main task is to combine the various sources of relevant information to provide the most thorough interpretation of the past possible. Historical archaeological research thus regularly involves both excavation and the examination of nonarchaeological sources of information (see Historical Archaeology: As a Discipline).
When excavating, historical archaeologists often encounter extremely thin layers of soil, generally referred to as microstratification. All archaeologists, regardless of their area of expertise, may find thin layers of accumulated living surfaces. Thin layers of occupation are commonplace in historical archaeology because of the frequent study of house-lots and other activity areas that have been occupied for short periods of time. Historical archaeologists conducting investigations of post-Columbian history, or modern-world archaeology, commonly locate thin occupation layers. The possible presence of microstrata means that historical archaeologists must excavate recently occupied sites carefully, paying close attention to the way the soil has been naturally deposited.
Historical archaeologists also often encounter deep, purposefully built features that contain thick layers of soil and artifacts. These features, particularly privies and wells, often serve as time capsules. Before the institution of regular curb-service trash pickup, site residents often used open holes as trash and garbage receptacles. Given the way in which things get deposited in such places, archaeologists generally discover that the deeper one digs into a well or privy, the older the materials. Excavating deep features, historical archaeologists often can construct timelines that document the history of the property being studied. The internal stratification in such features may be thick or thin, depending upon the circumstances of deposition. Upon the discovery of thick layers, perhaps representing the deposition of a large amount of material from the demolition of a structure, the archaeologist may decide to excavate within each soil zone using excavation levels of a standard thickness.
In addition to the excavation and study of regular archaeological materials, in which all archaeologists must have expertise, historical archaeologists must also develop the skills of historians. Historical archaeologists must know how to locate, examine, and interpret the many historical records they may encounter in the course of their research. Historians spend their careers learning how to conduct documentary research, and historical archaeologists have learned a great deal from them. The way in which history is written, and precisely what it means once written, is a source of continued controversy among historians, and historical archaeologists must be conversant with the newest trends in historical interpretation. Numerous schools of thought exist, extending in scope from microhistory (perhaps written at the level of a single person’s life) to macrohistory (written to include contacts and interactions on an international or even global scale). Historical archaeologists have discovered that their site-specific research can contribute to the understanding of large, worldwide historical processes, including the spread of empires and capitalism, the role of transnational exchange and commodity gift-giving in local situations, and the beginnings of material globalization. At the same time, the site-specific nature of most archaeological research also means that historical archaeologists can provide unique perspectives on daily life at the household level.
Some of the documents historical archaeologists use will be straightforward and require little in the way of in-depth analysis. For example, nineteenth-and twentieth-century city insurance maps show the precise locations and even the construction materials of buildings in urban settings, and historical archaeologists have used them to great benefit. Older maps, such as those compiled by colonial surveyors or administrators or perhaps by untrained individuals, may have been completed at a large scale or maybe not even drawn to scale. These maps are less precise and generally demand greater interpretation.
Historical archaeologists also make extensive use of pictorial records and even drawings and paintings when available. In colonial settings, for instance, archaeologists can learn much about indigenous patterns of dress and the acceptance and rejection of foreign items for adornment and other purposes. Paintings and drawings can also help archaeologists locate sites by matching the image with the landscape. Images of individuals depicting unflattering or unrealistic physical characteristics can provide information about attitudes and biases that were present when the images were executed. Drawings in newspapers and weekly magazines provide examples. Historical archaeologists can use such information to help interpret past social context.
Photographs can be an extremely useful source of information for historical archaeologists. These images can be used to show the past appearance of buildings long demolished, as well as an infinite variety of other objects. Most evocative are images of individuals who once lived at a site being studied. The presence of snapshots can provide a realism and humanity to archaeological research that is seldom matched with other sources of information.
Literary works, even of fiction, are becoming increasingly important to historical archaeologists. Many authors have written about their own periods of history in terms that are expository and enlightening. Such works, if their voracity can be determined, can provide special insights into the contexts of the living society that can be gained through no other means. In many cases, writers may comment on the use and availability of material objects, thus giving the historical archaeologist special insights into the context and meaning of artifacts in the past.
Historical archaeologists also make use of nontextual sources of information. These sources demonstrate the strong linkage between much historical archaeology and anthropology, because this category of information is consistent with the practices of ethnographers. The techniques learned from social and cultural anthropologists involve the collection of cultural traditions and the compilation of concepts and beliefs from indigenous groups. Many of the methods historical archaeologists use in this facet of their research may also derive from the fields of local and public history, which, in turn, have borrowed from anthropology. The methods historical archaeologists use to collect information that may only exist in personal memories extend from the practical use of recording devices and the transcription of interviews to the evaluation of cultural motifs and folk tales.
Beginning in the late twentieth century, historical archaeologists began to appreciate the role that indigenous knowledge could play in their research. Rather than ignoring members of descendant communities who are not professional archaeologists, many historical archaeologists have actively engaged people who, though not scholars, nonetheless may retain a huge body of unique and important information in their personal recollections. Historical archaeologists have discovered that interactions and collaborations with members of descendant communities can add rich detail to their research and make their findings and interpretations relevant far beyond the confines of academic archaeology.
The word ‘archaeology’ generally conjures up images of excavation and discovery beneath the Earth, but many historical archaeologists practice ‘aboveground archaeology’. This term refers to the examination of buildings, structures, and other cultural features, such as gravestones, that do not require excavation. Historical archaeologists often are able to incorporate into their interpretations inscriptions on grave markers, the designs of floor plans, and the construction techniques used in standing buildings. In incorporating aboveground features in their research, historical archaeologists share their methods with industrial archaeologists and historical architects.
See also: Ethnohlstory; Historical Archaeology: As a
Discipline.
World History
