Discussion

The Razboinich’ ya Cave assemblage provides a unique resource for identifying and defining the bone damage signature of late Pleistocene carnivores, especially the cave hyena. The characteristics of this signature include: (1) such severe destruction that identifying species, skeletal elements, and age is impossible for at least 25% of an assemblage; (2) more than half of an assemblage is made up of pieces without any anatomical end; (3) around 50% of a bone assemblage consists of flakes, fragments, and splinters, there being very few whole bones or bones only slightly damaged; (4) perimortem breakage is extensive, and present in at least 90% of an assemblage;

Fig. 3.136 Razboinich’ya Cave, bear skull, basilar view. This old bear was effectively toothless

When it died. The canines had been broken in life (they show wear on the remnant roots). There was inflammation in and around the sockets of the post-canine teeth, and severe fracture of the snout shows clearly in this and the previous figure. Such a break likely occurred in combat or by a kick from a large hoofed herbivore. Careful examination shows not a single tooth scratch, dint, or damage to the fragile bones so easily broken by powerful hyena jaws. The case for humans having placed the skull in the cave is forensically satisfactory (CGT IAE neg. 7-23-98:22).

(5) end-hollowing occurs in at least 5% of an assemblage; (6) notching is frequent, being present on at least 25% of all pieces; (7) tooth scratches occur on at least one-third of an assemblage, and tooth dints are present on 50%; (8) pseudo-cuts can occur; (9) embedded fragments occur around 5-10% of the time; (10) pieces with acid erosion are present at least 5% of the time; (11) a carnivore assemblage has no pieces with cutting, chopping, or burning. As is discussed in our various other sites viewed as archaeological sites, this carnivore signature can easily be recognized when it is present, meaning that some of the faunal remains found in an archaeological site may have been introduced by hunting or scavenging carnivores, not by humans. When the carnivore signature occurs in an archaeological site, then economic reconstruction must consider that some of the game animals may not have been the prey of the human occupants. Conversely, humans may have carried meat-bearing bones of large animals into archaeological caves such as Kamminaya. These bones may have been broken up later by scavenging hyenas following short-or long-term departure by the human inhabitants, of whom Paleolithic hyenas may have been moderately fearful.

Fig. 3.137  Bear sacrifice. An exhibit in the former IHPP museum of a Siberian Tungus bear sacrifice and

Monument pole. In addition to Tungus animism, animal sacrifice is well known ethnographically in far eastern Siberia and adjacent Hokkaido (Jomon-Ainu bear cult, Kamchatkan Koryak dog sacrifice). The Razboinich’ya find suggests that the practice of animal worship and sacrifice might extend back into Mousterian times. The Razboinich’ya bear skull may be the oldest evidence of “animism” in all of Siberia. If so, might there have been shamanism also? (CGT color IHPP 6-18-87:26).

Fig. 3.138  Razboinich’ya Cave, dog. As if the Ovodov team’s find of the ritual bear skull was not enough,

They also discovered the skull of what turns out to be one of the most ancient dogs in northern Eurasia (34 000 years old). Ovodov was preparing another scientific paper on the dog when this photograph was taken in the small Krasnoyarsk apartment where he lives with Lena Popkova. Dinner was being served when the senior author hastened to snap a few photographs of the dog, comparative carnivore skulls, books on wolves, a box of hyena skulls, and a small part of a delightful Russian dinner that, like most, terminated scientific study and measurements. Traditionally, Russian scholars conduct much of their work at home, which explains why the specimens were in Ovodov’s apartment (CGT color Krasnoyarsk 8-2-00:6).

Fig. 3.139  Razboinich’ya Cave, dog. Basilar view, same positions as previous figure (CGT color

Krasnoyarsk 8-2-00:10).

Seasonal occupants of Razboinich’ya Cave included brown bears that Ovodov proposes were likely killed and eaten by hyenas while hibernating. One bear skull seems to have been left in the cave by humans (Figs. 3.132-3.136). A sacrificial bear cult was widespread in historic Siberia (Fig. 3.137), as was dog sacrifice in parts of far northeast Siberia (Figs. 3.138-3.139). Thus, Razboinich’ya Cave provides direct evidence of the carnivore bone damage signature, and indirect evidence of very ancient animism-shamanism.