Maybe the lack of leadership, which might have united the Western Caucasus under one rule, can be mentioned as the most significant weakness of Circassia in comparison to the Eastern Caucasus. However, some kind of stately establishments and emergence of an understanding of nationhood were under way during the war with Russia, which helped Circassia to resist for decades. Characteristically, diplomatic missions became one of the main aspects of the Circassian resistance. The Circassians soon accustomed to the war and the international relations, and tried to make use of the Eastern Question for their own cause. The road to an independent Circassia would pass through the capitals of the European powers, and the Circassians were conscious of the situation. The Circassians also made use of their geographical peculiarities. Circassia was not only a difficult terrain for the invaders, but also in contrast to the Eastern Caucasus it was not isolated and had well-established contacts with the Ottoman Empire.
Though it might have seemed somewhat utopic or unrealistic, a hope for a foreign support was one of the strengths of the Circassians. While the actual foreign aid to the Circassians throughout the war remained insignificant, the belief for a prospective foreign intervention always kept the fire of the Circassian resistance. Circassians, up until the very last moment, entertained the hope that the Western powers, especially England, would intervene on their behalf in the Russo-Circassian War, or a Russo-Ottoman War would reestablish the pre-Edirne Treaty conditions.
Therefore, they gave special importance to maintain their contacts with the Ottoman Empire and Britain. That expectation reached its climax after the defeat of the Russians in the Crimean War in 1856. They were well aware that without foreign help, military as well as diplomatic, they could not maintain their defense everlastingly. Therefore, while they were resisting in the mountains, they also did not forget that diplomatic missions were as important as the military victories. That is one of the reasons why Zanoko Sefer’s name was so significant in the Russo-Circassian War, and maybe much more legendary than the names of Haci Degumuko Berzeg or Haci Kizbech, well-known tribal leaders famous with their victories against Russia.
Zanoko Sefer (later Sefer Bey and Sefer Pasha) deserves the most attention in regard to his activities before and during the Crimean War as a Circassian leader as well as an Ottoman Pasha. Though he lived in the Ottoman Empire for more than two decades after the Treaty of Edirne and Russia took pains prevent his activities, Zanoko Sefer preserved his connections with Circassia, and continued to be the sole Circassian abroad who carried out the organization of the diplomatic mission. It can be argued that to some extent he played the same role for the Circassians, what Adam Czartoryski played for the Poles.
It is not possible to pronounce that a considerable foreign help was guaranteed to the Circassian missions. However, Zanoko Sefer and the Circassian delegates not only preserved the Circassian question in the international agenda, but they also maintained the hope of a foreign help. On the other hand, while the foreign support was modest, this was still important (or if not vital) for Circassia where during the war many commodities were scarce, among which arms and salt were critically important.
On the other hand, the Polish emigres and missions were actively involved in with the Circassian question quite actively. They not only supported the Circassians from abroad politically, but also participated in the war against Russia in the Circassian mountains. However, all these efforts of both the Circassian and Polish emigres initiated from the Ottoman soil.
Actually, the Ottoman Empire could not engage in the Caucasian matters because of its internal problems. The Porte always abstained from causing any conflict with Russia, being aware of its relative weakness comparing to the northern neighbor. Therefore, it is not possible to bring an argument for the active participation of the Ottoman Empire. However, its role yet should not be underestimated. One of the important aspects of the role of the Ottoman Empire was its deep-seated relations with Circassia culturally238 And commercially. For the Circassians, the Ottoman Empire was almost a second fatherland not only because it was the Caliph’s state, but also due to many historical cultural, commercial and social bonds. The mass immigration of the Circassians to the Ottoman territories after their defeat also should be understood in this context.
The Circassians carried out their commercial relations exclusively with the Ottoman Empire, while the Ottoman lands were the sole market for their most important commodity - slaves. The war in the commercial arena brought two important results: while on the one hand, trade with Russia decreased dramatically, on the other, agricultural and animal production decreased and the slave trade became almost the sole income for the Circassians to meet their needs. The Circassians totally depended on the importation of salt, fabrics and ammunitions. They had to pay back with their agricultural products and of course slaves. The main market and the distribution center of the Circassian slave trade was Istanbul, as it had been for centuries. Slave trade also had a significant place in the Ottoman society.239 Not only it was the base of the harem system in the Ottoman society, these slaves were also virtually absorbed by the society as servants, officials, generals etc. In the Ottoman Empire, it was possible for a talented slave to reach the highest social ranks since the Ottoman society was not of a caste structure.
In addition, in the Ottoman soil Circassians also conducted relations with the European powers, Polish emigres and the Ottoman officials of the Circassian origin, which played a role in favor of the Circassians. In fact, the Porte was not the organizer, and only rarely it might encourage or condone, but in general it tried to prevent the activities of the Circassians not to deteriorate the Russo-Ottoman relations.
Ottoman archives are generally silent and only in the cases of some kind of a crisis with Russia then it became possible to see the documents on activities of the
Circassians or the Poles.240 While we can argue that the Ottoman Empire tried to keep the peace with the Russian Empire, it probably could not control its officials completely in the Circassian matter. As for Britain, Ponsonby acted differently from the government and Urquhart had his own diplomacy, a similar case can also be speculated for the Ottoman Empire. While the state was trying to preserve the peace and friendly relations with Russia, the Pashas of Circassian origin had their own agendas. Though a comprehensive study is needed to assess their activities completely, one can argue that Russia exaggerated their role to ascribe its own failures to the foreign undermining activities. Apart from that, there is no evidence of the dispatch of an Ottoman agent to Circassia save for the Crimean War period.
However, relations of the Circassians with the outside world, on the other hand, alerted Russia to a great extent that Russia set the insulation of Circassia, in both economic and political terms, one of the most important parts of its plan to subdue the Circassian territories fully. Russia, very soon after the Treaty of Edirne, engaged in a naval blockade, and then supported this blockade with establishment of a number of fortifications in the Eastern Black Sea shores. It was declared that any trade with the Circassians, with the exception of a few ports under its control, was illegal and would be prevented. By this way, it aimed to close the Circassian coasts to the foreign vessels. Russia had two main aims in establishing this blockade: first, it would isolate the mountaineers from Turkey and other powers, thereby preventing any deliveries of weapons, powder, salt, and the entrance of foreign emissaries; and
Second, simultaneously to make the Russian trade protected from any foreign
Competition, and thus to connect the Circassians to Russia via trade.
In addition, considering the Caucasian wars absolutely its internal matter, Russia tried hard to prevent any discussion on the Caucasian matters among the international circles. Russia was always uneasy about the activities of the Polish and the Circassian emigres, though it was not always possible to press the Ottoman Empire to prevent their activities, when Britain or France were also involved in the issue.
As for the British policy in the Near East, it had two main characteristics: To preserve the security of the way to the India, as well as those of the British commercial rights and privileges in the Near East. For both concerns the Caucasus had a certain role, though the Caucasus was rather on the periphery since the main competition was going on in the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
In the course of the Russo-Circassian war, the Crimean War constituted an exceptional period. It changed the international context for three years though afterwards the previous order was reestablished. The inactive stay of Sefer Pasha in Sohumkale for months, the Ottoman support for both Sefer Pasha and Muhammed Emin all showed that the Ottoman Empire could not develop a clear-cut plan and could not pursue any strategy, and the war years passed with absolutely no gains for both the Ottomans and the Circassians. However, to the failures of the Ottoman Empire policies of Britain and France also should be added. With the desire of the
' Vladimir Degoev, Bolshaia igra na Kavkaze: istoriia i sovremennost (Moscow, 2001), p. 77.
Allied command the Ottoman army and navy to a large extent pacified and only played the role of walking-on part in the war, therefore it was also difficult to develop and pursue an efficient Caucasian policy for the Ottoman Empire.
Throughout the war, the Russian policy was extremely strict and bloody. Esadze, after describing a storm and the destruction of a Circassian village, underlined the importance of such attacks for subduing the Circassians. He argued that these attacks forced the Circassians to refuge to the mountains where they could not resist long, leaving the productive farms to the Cossack settlers.241 The Circassians were faced with only two options: the resettlement in the plains in the Russian territory which promised only a dubious future under the rule of their most hatred enemy and the emigration to the Ottoman lands abandoning all their material and spiritual possessions behind. They chose the latter. However, they did not forget their country, and many continued their struggle during their lives in the Ottoman Empire hardly losing their hopes to return Circassia.
Russian conquest of Circassia undoubtedly changed the destiny of the Circassians. The previous conquest of Circassia by Huns, Mongols, and Tatars before, did not bring any significant change in the demographic picture of the Western Caucasus. However, the Russian invasion changed the local demography significantly. The Russian conquest was followed with the nearly total expulsion of the Circassians. It was the result of the imperialist understanding of the Russian Empire: the invaded land had to become a part of the core of the country and the Russians perceived themselves not as invaders but simply as the new masters.
Following incorporation of the South Caucasus, and Russia which had plans to advance further to the south did not want a land enjoying an independent way of life. The complete suppression of the North Caucasus was seen as an absolute necessity for two main reasons: First, the North Caucasus was seen as the internal matter of the Russian Empire, and the war was merely a struggle against the rebels who did not obey the legitimate authority. Second, the people who inhabit the Russian borderlands and had special relations with the Ottoman Empire should be somehow eliminated to provide the secure boundaries.
After the Russian conquest in 1864, the number of Circassians in the Northwestern Caucasus drastically declined. Actually, the immigration from Circassia started after the Edirne Treaty, accelerated after 1860s, and then came the exodus of 1864. Even after 1864, the Circassian immigration continued. Less than 200.000 remained in the Caucasus scattered over a wide area extending from Mozdok in the east to the Black Sea in the west. The Russian and the Cossack colonists gradually occupied the places left by the Circassians, especially along the strategically important Black Sea littoral, which was cleared of the Circassian presence except for a few tiny pockets.
To sum up, any active policy of the Ottoman Empire in the affairs of Circassia throughout the Russo-Circassian War of 1830-1864 could hardly be discerned with the exception of the Crimean War period. The Ottoman Empire, known as “the sick man of Europe”, was in search of cures for its own disorders. It tried to provide its security against Russia by pursuing a politics of balance, and a war with Russia was the last thing the Porte desired. However, geographical proximity and accessibility of the Ottoman Empire for the Circassians played a vital role during their resistance. In this context, Russia’s apprehensions were not absolutely groundless. The activities of the Circassian and the Polish emigres as well as of the European diplomatic circles were mainly conducted thorough the Ottoman soil. Therefore, it can be argued that the role of the Ottoman Empire was broader than its policies in case of Circassia. That was probably one of the reasons why the Russian Empire saw the total expulsion of this people as the only solution for the complete control of the Circassian territories.
World History
