Abbot The superior of a monastery or abbey for men, specifically one following the Benedictine rule or certain other orders. The word abbot has a linguistic forebear in the Aramaic word for father; the man elected abbot is granted both civic and spiritual authority over other members of his community.
Acropolis Originally the upper fortified part of the ancient Greek city of Athens on which the Parthenon stands; later any usually fortified or strengthened high point of a city or district. From the Greek akros meaning “topmost; extreme” and polis meaning “city”
Adaptation Change in behavior of an individual or group in response to a new cultural situation or a new physical environment (sometimes through the application of information and technology).
Amber A hard translucent fossil resin, yellow to brown in color, that takes a fine polish. It is typically found in alluvial areas and some seashores, as in the Baltic Sea region.
Amici Latin for “friends;” used for people who were allies of the Romans.
Amphora (pl. amphorae) A jar or vase, typical of the ancient Greeks, having a large oval body, narrow cylindrical neck, and two high handles.
Animism The belief that natural phenomena and inanimate objects possess souls and personalities.
Annals A written record of events arranged by the year; a type of chronicle.
Anthropology The study of humankind; from the Greek anthropo, “human being,” and logy, “doctrine; theory; science.” Anthropology encompasses the physical, racial, social, and cultural origins; development; geographical distribution; and characteristics of the human animal. The science of anthropology can broadly be subdivided into “physical anthropology” and “cultural anthropology” (Anthropology is subdivided into four main fields: archaeology, ethology, linguistics, and paleography) archaeology (archeology) The recovery, reconstruction, and study of material evidence (such as fossil relics, implements, and artifacts) of bygone peoples and cultures to determine their ways of life. From the Latin for “antiquarian lore” and before that from the Greek word archaio, “ancient,” and logy, “doctrine,” “theory,” or “science.”
Archon The chief magistrate of ancient Athens.
Arianism (Arian Christianity) A theological movement initiated by the Greek ecclesiastic Arius (c. 250-336) maintaining that God is unknowable and separate from all other beings and that Jesus Christ is a created being and not a divinity in the fullest sense.
Artifact An object made by humans (as distinguished from a natural object).
Atlantic wheelhouse A later development of the stone Atlantic roundhouse of northern Iron Age Scotland, the name referring to the interior walls that radiate out similarly to spokes from the center; wheelhouses were sunk into the ground; only their thatched roofs and upper walls were visible from the outside.
Augur One who foretells the future from omens; an official position in ancient Rome.
Barbarian The term in its original sense meant “alien” or “foreign,” originally applied as non-Greek, then non-Roman, and non-Christian. It developed the connotation of someone uncivilized.
Barrow A large earthen or stone mound placed over the remains of the dead; used synonymously with the term cairn or tumulus. In England barrow can refer to a hill.
Basileus Among the Mycenaeans a minor official who helped the wanax administer his court. The term also was used as the title of the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire as well as the title of Anglo-Saxon rulers of Britain.
Basilica In ancient Rome a building used for public assembly or a court of justice; typically oblong with a semicircular apse (projection). The term was also used for early Christian church buildings, also with apses.
B. C.E. “Before the Common Era.” b. c.e. has replaced B. C., the term used for dates before the birth of Christ according to the Christian calendar.
Black Death (bubonic plague) An epidemic across Europe and Asia in the 14th century, which killed somewhere between 20 to 40 percent of the European population. It was named for the black patches (hemorrhages) that commonly formed on the skin of its victims.
B. P. “Years before the present,” in which 1950 c. e. represents the present, the year the calibration curves for carbon dating were established. B. P. dating tends to be approximate.
Boyar Member of an old Russian aristocratic order ranking just below the ruling princes; the rank of boyar was abolished by Peter the Great.
Broch A drystone round tower used for fortification by the ancient Scots; some 30 to 42 feet tall and 40 to 80 feet in diameter, brochs often consisted of double walls surrounding apartments and overlooking a central court. From a Scottish word meaning “borough.”
Bronze Age Arbitrary technological stage invented as part of a three-part system (Stone or Paleolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with sometimes the Copper Age included as a phase); the dates vary from region to region. In a general sense the Bronze Age was the period from about 2500 b. c.e., when bronze making was adopted in the Balkans and Danube-Carpathian regions, to about 1050 b. c.e., when iron use began to be important in Greece.
Early Bronze Age—The period from about 2500 b. c.e., the start of bronze making in southeastern Europe and the spread of the Bell Beaker complex, to about 1800 B. C.E., when bronze making had begun to reach the rest of Europe, including Scandinavia.
Middle Bronze Age—The period from about 1800 b. c.e. to 1300 B. C.E., during which bronze making was important in most of Europe, chariot-using steppe cultures begin to influence central Europe, and urban civilization arrived in the Greek mainland.
Late Bronze Age—The period from about 1300 b. c.e., when new bronze-working techniques led to a proliferation of new forms, to about 1050 b. c.e., when widespread iron use began in Greece.
Burgh A town in Scotland that is incorporated with local jurisdiction.
Bylina (pl. byliny or bylinas) A traditional form of orally transmitted Old Russian and Russian heroic narrative song, folk epic, or ballad; from the Russian for “what has been.”
Cairn A typically cone-shaped pile of stones used as a burial site during the Neolithic Age and the Early Bronze Age. Cairn also refers to a heap of stones piled up as a memorial, a landmark, or sometimes a boundary marker. The word is of Scottish Gaelic origin. It is not clearly distinguishable from barrow, with which it is sometimes used interchangeably.
Caliph A spiritual leader of Islam, often with political power as well; successors of Muhammad. Caliphate is the office or dominion of the caliph.
Carnyx (carnex) A Celtic trumpet, used in warfare. Nearly man high they had mouths fashioned to look like beasts.
Cashel A stone circular enclosure surrounding buildings, particularly church buildings. From the Middle Irish and ultimately the Latin word for “castle.” See also rath.
Castellan A commander or warden of a stronghold, typically with military, judicial, and fiscal powers over local populations.
C. E. “Common Era.” c. e. is used in place of A. D., a term that means Anno Domini, “in the year of the Lord,” or after the birth of Christ in the Christian calendar.
Censor One of two officials in ancient Rome, chosen from former consuls, who were responsible for taking the census, especially accounting for holdings of property; administered public finances; and inspected morals and conduct.
Chronicle A written record of events arranged sequentially. Annals and sagas are types of chronicles.
City-state A state consisting of an independent city and territories under its control.
Civitas (pl., civitates) A Roman political community; a self-governed region based largely on preexisting Celtic tribal territories. Each civitas had a capital, often at the location of a Celtic oppidum, although new towns were sometimes established.
Clan A multigenerational social group within a tribe, made up of several families who trace descent through either the male or the female line (“patriclan” or “matriclan,” i. e., a patrilineal clan or matrilineal clan) from a common, sometimes mythical, sometimes real, or totemic ancestor.
Colonization The process of establishing control of a territory in a foreign, commonly distant location, where the new settlers retain ties to their country of origin.
Comitas A warrior band or society formed around the nucleus of a successful war leader, one whose good fortune in war signaled the favor of the gods. Typical of Germanic tribes.
Composite bow (reflexed bow) A bow made of varying layers of wood, horn, and sinews for extra tension. Typical of the Huns and other steppe peoples.
Confederation (confederacy) An alliance of nations or states whose association is commonly based on a desire for mutual support. Confederation and confederacy have ancestors in the Latin terms that mean “agreement” or “compact.”
Consul Either of two annually elected chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, who held the imperium, the divine authority for their power.
Copper Age Also known as the Aeneolithic period (Latin aenus means “of copper or bronze”) and the Chalcolithic period (Greek chalkos means “copper”); it refers to the times when copper was used to make various small tools, although such usage was sporadic. The Copper Age was a transitional age between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. As with other ages the dates attributed to the Copper Age vary. The period can be placed to 5000 b. c.e. in southeastern Europe to 3200 or 2500 B. C.E. elsewhere.
Crannog An artificial island built in a lake or marsh, constructed by driving a circular framework of vertical timbers into the lake floor and filling it with boulders and clay topped with a timber, clay-covered platform on which a house was built. It served also as a fort. Typical of the Celts of the British Isles. From the Middle Irish word meaning “wooden structure” and, before that, the Irish word meaning “tree.”
Cremation The practice of reducing a dead body to ashes by burning. It is a very old custom, long associated with deaths in battle.
Crusades Any of eight major (and other minor) military expeditions marshaled by Western Christian powers between the years 1095 c. e. and 1291 c. e. (and even later, according to some reports); their purpose was to reclaim the Holy Land from the Muslims. The term is also applied to campaigns against pagan peoples in the Baltic region.
Culture The learned customs characteristic of a given people. Culture includes behavior and beliefs, as found in institutions and rituals, as well as material objects, such as tools, clothing, and art. The term culture is also used in reference to particular societies or communities. In archaeology the term can refer to a cluster of diagnostic characteristics, or a recurring assemblage used to identify a group of associate sites.
Curragh (currach; curach; skin boat) A type of boat constructed from oiled animal hides covering a light wooden frame. It is also called a skin boat. Pointed at both ends, it resembles a large canoe. Although normally propelled by oars, it can be rigged with a sail. The curragh has been used especially in waters off Ireland.
Cylix (pl. cylixes) A two-handled drinking cup, typical of the ancient Greeks, having a shallow bowl set on a stem and a foot.
Czar (tsar) The ruler of Russia before the Russian Revolution in 1917. In medieval Russia before the 1453 fall of Constantinople czar was the title for the head of the Orthodox Christian Church.
Democracy Any government by the people, or majority rule. The ancient Greeks practiced direct democracy in their city-states; in representative democracy people exercise their power indirectly, through representatives chosen periodically at free elections. From Greek terms meaning “populace” plus “strength” or “form.”
Dendrochronology The practice of dating and interpreting the past on the basis of analysis of tree rings.
Dialect A variety of a language, commonly regional, that is distinguished from other regional counterparts in the same language by pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
Diaspora A large-scale migration of a people. From the Greek term meaning “dispersion” or “scattering.”
Differentiation (social) The process by which a culture becomes more complex through increasing specialization.
Diffusion The movement of ideas or technologies over space and time.
Dolmen A monument consisting of at least two upright stones topped by a stone placed horizontally. Believed to be a tombstone, the dolmen was found throughout prehistoric Britain and France. From the Breton words meaning “table” plus “stone.”
Domestication The process of adapting an animal or plant to suit better the needs of human beings.
Dun A fortified residence typical of the ancient Scots. Fortification consisted of either two or more concentric circular earthen mounds surrounding the residence containing a moat between them or a wall and a circular mound holding palisades. From the Old Irish word meaning “fortress.”
Dromos (pl. dromi or dromoi) A long passageway to a subterranean tomb (a dromos tomb); often cut in rock as found among the Mycenaeans.
Druids Specialized class of priests, seers, philosophers versed in nature study. Associated with healing and teaching, politics and judicial systems, and known also for practice of sacrificial rites and for cruelty Pre-Celtic, but associated with many Celtic tribes through Roman rule. Pliny connects the word druid with the Greek word drys meaning “oak tree.”
Duchy (dukedom) The territory or jurisdiction of a duke or duchess.
Dynasty A family, group, or class with authority over others, which has the power to choose its successors.
Earthwork Any construction made primarily of earth and stone. Applied to permanent and temporary mounds, enclosures, and embankments.
Elegiac Poetry using the elegiac meter in rhymed couplets, typically in elegies commemorating the dead. It originated in ancient Greece.
Emir From the Arabic word meaning “commander” or “prince,” emir is both a title and a term for a ruler or chief in Islamic countries. The jurisdiction of an emir is an emirate.
Emporium A place of trade, that is, a marketplace, among the ancient Romans; from the Greek emporos for “traveler” or “trader.”
Eponym In these contexts eponym refers to the legendary ancestor after whom a tribe believes it is named. More generally eponym is one for whom something is named.
Ethnicity The term is applied to the quality shared by members of a group whose association with each other is based on common cultural, national, racial, or linguistic attributes.
Ethnogenesis The birth of new tribal groupings.
Feudalism (feudal system) A system of political organization based on the obligation of a vassal to a superior related to the holding of land.
Fibula (pl. fibulae) A metal clasp in the shape of a modern safety pin, used by the Greeks and Romans and other ancient peoples.
Flaking (knapping, chipping) Removing flakes of stone, usually from chunks of flint, chert, or obsidian, to shape tools or points.
Foederatus (pl. foederati) Latin term meaning “federate” or “confederate.” Applied to auxiliary troops from among other peoples serving in the Roman army.
Folkright The collective will of a people as embodied in rules and laws that have been established over time, whether or not recorded in writing.
Forum In ancient Rome the forum was the public gathering place and the center of public business. It was a centrally located open air area surrounded by public buildings and colonnades.
Fresco (pl. frescoes) The art of painting on freshly spread plaster before it dries with water-based pigments, or the painting itself executed in fresco.
Galley (galley ship) A variety of wooden vessels powered mainly by oars, but in some cases by sails as well. The term is primarily associated with the vessels of ancient civilizations surrounding the Mediterranean Sea but also applies to the longship of the Vikings.
Gavelkind A system of inheritance practiced in Anglo-Saxon Kent (until 1925), in which the lands of the landholder who died without a will were divided equally among the heirs.
Gorget Piece of armor that protects the throat.
Hegemony A political term used to describe leadership or dominance, particularly the strong influence or authority of a government.
Hellenism The ancient Hellenic thought or customs or ideals associated with ancient Greece, including a love of knowledge, arts, and reason, and a belief in civic responsibility and moderation. The term, from Greek words that mean to imitate the Greeks or speak Greek, also refers to the Greeks as a national or cultural group.
Helot The lowest of the people of ancient Sparta, serfs attached to landed estates; possibly derived from the name of the town Helos in the region of Laconia conquered by the Spartans.
Henge Any circular Bronze Age structure surrounded by a bank and ditch (and found in England); derived from Stonehenge, the immense circular monument of large stones surrounded by an earthwork constructed during the Bronze Age in England.
Hieroglyphic writing A system that consists primarily of pic-tographs (pictorial characters), representing words or ideas (as opposed to a sounds, as in alphabet writing or in syllabaries). The term was originally used for the picture writing of ancient Egyptians and later applied more broadly.
Hill fort (hill-fort) A Celtic stronghold built on a hill with ditches, earth rampants, and wooden palisades, serving as a permanent settlement, a refuge in times of war, or a sacred site. Hill forts were first built in the Bronze Age but were more typical in the Iron Age. A Celtic fortified settlement on lower ground is known as an oppidum; one constructed as an artificial island, a crannog.
Hominid A creature of the family Hominidae (order Primates). Only one hominid species currently exists: Homo sapiens.
Hoplite A heavily armed infantry soldier in ancient Greece.
Horde A clan or tribal group of nomadic Mongolian tent dwellers claiming jurisdiction over a defined area.
Horizon An anthropological term for a particular cultural period, as evidenced in archaeology by a level or stratum. Or a geological term for a deposit of a particular time, usually identified by distinctive fossils.
Hunting-gathering (hunting-and-gathering) Subsistence in which food is obtained solely through hunting, fishing, and foraging for wild plant foods. All peoples were hunter-gatherers until the invention of agriculture.
Ice Age (or Ice Ages) A period of repeated glacial to interglacial cycles, eight in all, which began at the Middle Pleistocene boundary in about 730,000 b. p. and ended around 10,000 B. P.
Icon A pictorial representation of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints. From the Greek word meaning “image.”
Iconoclasm A religious movement within the Byzantine Empire, primarily during the eighth and ninth centuries; its members opposed the use of icons in the Orthodox Church.
Imperium The divine authority for power, a concept perhaps passed to the ancient Romans by the Etruscans.
Indo-European The large group of related languages derived from a single root, called proto-Indo-European. Indo-European language families include Baltic, Celtic, Germanic, Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic, Romance, Slavic, Illyrian, and a number of smaller groupings.
Inhumation Grave burial.
Inquisition A papal tribunal of medieval and early modern times devoted to inquiring into (from a Latin root that means inquire into), combating, and punishing heresy, sorcery, apostasy, and witchcraft; violence was typically involved.
In situ Latin for “in place.” Archaeologists use the term to describe an artifact at the point of discovery, when it has not been removed from its surrounding soil.
Iron Age An arbitrary technological stage invented as part of a three-part system (Stone, Bronze, and Iron); the dates vary from region to region. In a general sense the Iron Age was the period from about 1050 B. C.E., when iron use began in Greece, to the beginning of the Roman Empire in 27 b. c.e. and annexation of large parts of central Europe and Britain during the first centuries b. c.e./c. e. (The Iron Age ended in Scandinavia in the 12th century c. e. with the adoption of Christianity and the emergence of strong kingdoms.)
Khan A Mongol or Tatar lord or prince. A khanate is the dominion or jurisdiction of a khan.
Kingdom The territory or jurisdiction of a king or queen.
Kurgan A long and round burial mound.
Laird A landed proprietor or owner of a small estate in Scotland.
Language family A term used in linguistics to describe two or more languages, distinct but with elements in common and related historically in that they are descended from a common language.
La Tene Stylized curvilinear art style (named after a site in Switzerland) developed in the Rhine-Moselle region after 500 B. C.E. under the influence of Etruscan trade goods. La Tene elements were widely copied and incorporated into local styles throughout temperate Europe from Ireland and Britain to northern Italy to Poland and Transylvania. The style remained influential well into the Roman period. La Tene influences can be seen in the illuminated manuscripts of early medieval Ireland.
Lawagetas A leader among the Mycenaeans, below the wanax; perhaps a war leader.
Limes A boundary; the Roman frontier line extending from the Rhine near Koblenz to the Danube near Regensburg. The Romans fortified this line with forts and watchtowers. The Rhine line from the North Sea to Koblenz and the Danube line from Eining to the Black Sea are referred to as the wet limes.
Lingua franca Literally “Frankish language” in Italian, the original Lingua Franca was a common language spoken in Mediterranean ports during the Middle Ages, probably developed by traders and/or crusaders. It included elements of French, Italian, Spanish, Greek, and Arabic.
Linguistics The scientific study of human speech or of a specific language, in which particular attention is paid to the association between speech and writing.
Longship A type of galley used by the Vikings in the fjords of their homeland in Scandinavia and for their travels to other parts of Europe and North America. Two types of Viking ships have been called by that name: the drakkar, meaning “dragon ship,” or the langskip, meaning “longship”; and the knorr or hafskip, meaning “half-ship,” also called kautskip, “merchant ship.”
Lost wax A process in metal casting in which a piece of wax is fashioned in the desired shape, then encased in clay; the heating causes the melting of the wax and the firing of the clay, creating a mold into which molten metal can be poured.
Lyre A stringed instrument related to the harp used by the ancient Greeks especially in the accompaniment of song and recitation (the lyric).
Magistrate A general term for an official entrusted with the administration of laws, from the Latin magistratus.
Major domus During the first Frankish dynasty (500-751 C. E.) the person to whom the seneschal would answer; translates roughly as “mayor of the palace.”
Mark (march) A territorial border or frontier, typically defended by soldiers, or the region beside a boundary line.
Material culture Artifacts or other physical objects left by past cultures, such as projectile points or ceramic vessels.
Medieval Warm Period Also called Little Climatic Optimum, the period was one of worldwide warming that occurred between the 11th and mid-13th centuries. Scholars believe the warmer weather and reduced sea ice influenced the increase in exploration by the Vikings.
Megalith A large stone monument, typically chambered tombs from the Neolithic Age found in western Europe.
Megaron The great central hall of the Mycenaean house, usually rectangular with a circular hearth in the center; also called the king’s hall.
Menhir A monolith standing alone or as one in an avenue or circle. From the Breton words meaning “stone” plus “long.”
Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) The period from 8000 B. C.E. to the beginning of farming in southeastern Europe in approximately 7000 B. C.E.
Microlith An extremely small stone tool made to fit into a handle of bone or antler and associated primarily with the Mesolithic Age.
Midden A refuse heap marking the site of human habitation.
Middle Ages Period of European history from the fall of the Roman Empire to the start of the Renaissance (approximately 500-1500 C. E., although the latter date can vary by a century or so).
Monasticism With an ancestor in a Greek word believed to mean “to live alone,” monasticism names the religious ascetic movement in which its members separate themselves from society and devote themselves to practicing good works above and beyond those required of others in their religion.
Monolith A single stone shaped into a pillar, monument, or statue.
Monotheism The belief in a single, all-powerful god.
Mosaic A picture or design made by placing small colorful pieces of stone, shell, feathers, or other material onto a mortar.
Myth A traditional story, typically of the distant past, containing supernatural elements and involving spiritual beings and legendary beings, and/or the origins and history of a people or a natural phenomenon.
Mythology The body of myths of a people; the study of myths.
Neanderthal A species of hominid (Homo sapiens nean-derthalensis) widespread in Paleolithic Europe. From the name of a valley in Germany where remains were first found in 1856.
Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) The period from the earliest appearance of farming around 7000 B. C.E. to 5000 B. C.E., when copper metallurgy begins in Greece and the Balkans.
Ogham Irish linear script from the fifth century C. E. or earlier, developed from Latin. Ogham letters consist of strokes inscribed on each side of or crossing a stem line. Ogham inscriptions were often carved on stones, with the strokes cut along a stem line represented by an edge of the stone.
Oligarchy A form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a few.
Oppidum (pl. oppida) A Celtic fortified settlement built on lower ground than a hill fort. Many developed into extensive towns, typically with well-planned street layouts.
Paganism A religion with a belief in a polytheism as opposed to the monotheism of Christianity, Judaism, or Islam.
Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) Arbitrary technological stage invented as part of a three-part system (Stone, Bronze, and Iron); the dates vary from region to region. In a general sense the Stone Age was the period from about 1.7 million B. P., the date of the earliest known hominid fossil in Europe, to the end of the last Ice Age cycle around 10,000 b. p.
Lower Paleolithic—The period from about 1.7 million B. P, the beginning of the Paleolithic Age, to about 200,000 B. P, the date of the oldest known Neanderthal fossils.
Middle Paleolithic—The period from about 200,000 to
40.000 B. P, the approximate date of the beginning of the Aurignacian tool industry associated with late Neanderthals and early modern humans (earliest fossil found so far is dated to 36,300 b. p).
Upper Paleolithic—The period from about 40,000 b. p. to
10.000 B. P., the end of the last Ice Age.
Paleontology The study of fossil remains and ancient life-forms.
Palisades (stockade) A fence of upright logs placed around a village for purposes of fortification.
Patriarch Any one of the bishops of the sees of Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Moscow, and Jerusalem, who has authority over other bishops.
Patrician A member of one of the original citizen families of ancient Rome; they were the landowning nobles by birth for whom a common person, a plebeian, might work. The term was eventually used in a general sense to refer to a person of high birth or aristocrat.
Phalanx In its broad military sense any body of troops in close array; in ancient Greece it named a block of armed infantry standing shoulder to shoulder in deep and solid rank and file. The phalanx is considered the beginning of European military development.
Plebeian (pleb) A common person in ancient Rome, typically in service to a patrician.
Pogrom A massacre of helpless people, usually organized by government officials.
Polis The basic larger social unit of the ancient Greeks (aside from tribe and family), consisting of the city and the community of its people, that is, the city-state. The term was later used in a general sense for a state or society, a polity, having a sense of community.
Reformation The religious revolution that began in the Roman Catholic Church during the 16th century and became a basis for the establishment of Protestantism. Two of its notable leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin.
Reiks A war leader of Germanic peoples, below the thiudans.
Renaissance Literally “rebirth”; the Renaissance is the European period of rebirth of interest in classical values and pursuits generally said to have begun in 14th-century Italy and continued into the 17 th century The Renaissance is viewed as a transitional era between medieval and modern times.
Rhyton A drinking vessel of ancient times, which had the shape of part of an animal or mythological creature, especially its head.
Roundhouse A round dwelling constructed by the Celts by using a variety of materials. Those of stone found in Scotland are called Atlantic roundhouses.
Rune Writing symbols used by Germanic peoples from about the third century c. e. The runic alphabet is thought to be derived from both Greek and Latin. Runes were used as magic signs as well as alphabet characters.
Rune stone A stone with a rune inscription.
Polity Various permutations of political organization; it can mean simply “political organization,” or it can refer to a specific form of political organization. The term also can refer to the form of government of a religious denomination.
Polytheism Belief in and worship of more than a single god.
Saga A tale, often a poetic narrative; originally applied to stories of heroic deeds, both historical and legendary, of the Vikings.
Sarsen One of the large sandstone blocks scattered over the chalk downs in England. Also called a sarsen stone or druid stone.
Praetor An ancient Roman magistrate ranking below a consul, typically one who performed judicial functions.
See A seat of power or throne. Typically used in reference to the authority or jurisdiction of a bishop.
Prefect An official or magistrate of various ranks and functions in the Roman Empire.
Prehistory The cultural stage of a people before written records.
Primogeniture From the Latin words meaning “first” plus “birth,” the term refers to the exclusive right of inheritance under English law that benefits the eldest son or male heir and excludes all female and younger male descendants.
Principality The territory or jurisdiction of a prince.
Rath (ring fort) A small circular earthen enclosure containing single houses, sometimes with an outbuilding. A cashel is a stone-built equivalent of a rath.
Seignorialism A system of political, economic, and social relations between seigneurs, or lords, and their dependent farm laborers.
Seneschal In feudal times the person in charge of a lord’s estate.
Serf From the Latin word meaning “slave,” the term has at least two distinct senses: In 12th - and 13th-century England it designated a person of the lower class of the feudal system, who was bound to the soil and subject to the owner of the land. In Germany, Poland, and Russia of the 17th and 18th centuries it referred to a member of various unemancipated farming classes.
Shire An administrative subdivision of land ruled by a sheriff (shire-reeve) in England predating the Norman Conquest of 1066. After the Norman Conquest shire was superseded by county.
Silk Road A system of overland routes (not a constructed road) crossing nearly 4,000 miles of Asia and used for about 1,500 years for trade between the East and the West. It was named for silk, a valued commodity transported over it.
Situla (pl. situlae) A deep vase-like vessel with a wide opening at the top; the Celts made them in bronze.
Socius (pl. socii) A person or people in alliance with the ancient Romans, who did not have the rights of Roman citizens.
Specialization The process of changing to adapt or adjust one’s acts or behavior so that they are in harmony with changed conditions or a changed environment.
Stele (pl. stelae) An upright slab or pillar, typically sculpted with an inscription and often used as a gravestone.
Steppe (steppeland) A level grassy treeless plain, as found in southeastern Europe or Asia.
Stone Age See Paleolithic Age.
Subsistence The means of supporting life.
Subtribe A subdivision of a tribe, or a subordinate tribe.
Suzerainty The dominion or authority of a feudal lord with regard to a subject.
Symposium (pl. symposia) A gathering of ancient Greeks, typically characterized by drinking, music, and conversation. The term evolved to refer to a formal meeting at which addresses are presented on a topic or related topics.
Taiga The swampy, coniferous forest region that begins where the tundra, lying to the north, ends.
Tartan The name given the plaid textile design used in Scotland to designate a particular clan.
Tell A mound of decayed building material built up over successive generations.
Tenant farmer A farmer who works on land that is owned by another and who pays for the use of the land (either in produce or in cash).
Theme Originally a military unit stationed in the provinces in the Byzantine Empire; by the seventh century theme was applied to the military districts used as buffers against Muslim encroachments. By the 11th century the force of themes had waned; their decline contributed to the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
Thing A council among the Vikings, held at a Thingstead, a sacred or historic place. The Germanic term has survived in the name of the Storting, Norway’s parliament; in the Allting, Denmark’s parliament; and in the Althing, Iceland’s parliament.
Thiudans A type of sacred king of Germanic peoples, more powerful than a reiks.
Tholos (pl. tholoi) A circular tomb in the shape of a beehive, typical of the Mycenaeans; also called a dome tomb. The term is also applied to round buildings in later classical Greece.
Torc (torque) A neck ring made of metal wires twisted together so as to resemble a rope or cord, with an opening in the front and molded terminals welded to the ring ends.
Totem An animal, plant, natural object, natural phenomenon, or legendary being serving as the symbol of a tribe, clan, family, secret society, or individual. Totemic is the adjective form. A Native American-derived word.
Tribe A general term applied to different kinds and degrees of social organization. Tribes usually have a common language, culture, kinship, territory, history, and purpose and comprise a number of bands (subtribes) or towns.
Tumulus (pl. tumuli) A burial mound; see also barrow and cairn.
Tundra The treeless plain of the Arctic region, frozen in winter and marshy in summer, with a permanently frozen subsoil (permafrost) and low-growing vegetation, such as mosses, lichens, and dwarf shrubs. To the south of the tundra lie the forests of the taiga.
Tyrant An absolute ruler or monarch unrestrained by law or constitution; the Greek spelling was tyrannos (or pl. tyrannoi).
Urnfield period From 1300 b. c.e., when over most of Europe there was a change from burial of the dead to cremation and deposition of ashes underground in urns in cemeteries, to around 900 b. c.e., when burial practices began to change again.
Vassal One who has placed himself under the protection of a superior who gives land in return for loyalty and military protection.
Villa A country estate or property, as used by the Romans in foreign lands.
Wanax The term for the king or highest ruler among the Myceanaeans; the lawagetas, perhaps a war leader, was below him; the basileus also helped him rule.
Warrior society A club or sodality with exclusive membership, a common military purpose, and particular ritual organized around warfare.
Yeoman (pl. yeomen) A member of the class between the gentry and the laborers in England. A yeoman (perhaps a contraction of young man) could serve as a retainer in a noble household or own land.
Yurt (ger) A dwelling of central Asian nomadic peoples, a circular domed tent that consists of skins or felt stretched over a collapsible framework.
World History
