The changes that occurred in American cities after World War II significantly altered patterns of living in the 1950s and 1960s and beyond.
Beginning in the 1950s, manufacturing centers in the Northeast and Midwest declined in population, as industries moved out of these regions. An urban stretch extending across this part of the country became known as the Rust Belt because of all the abandoned factories. Industries such as steel and automobile manufacturing moved overseas or to other parts of the United States, as some failed to keep up with technological advancements and others were plagued with high costs and taxes. Rather than invest millions of dollars in updating existing machinery and employing high-wage union help, many corporations found it cheaper and easier to reestablish their businesses elsewhere. Areas affected by such moves experienced a significant loss of population. Major industrial cities such as Detroit, Michigan; Gary, Indiana; Cleveland, Ohio; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and Buffalo, New York, were among the hardest hit.
While cities in the Northeast and Midwest bore the brunt of industrial relocation, areas in the South and West benefited in the years following World War II when corporations began investing in these warmer regions. Cities such as Los Angeles, Miami, Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, and Phoenix experienced substantial growth and prosperity. Referred to as the Sunbelt, for their temperate climate and plentiful sunshine, these cities exploded in population as Americans followed manufacturing industries and jobs, leaving behind difficult times and cold weather. Lower taxes and a more modest cost of living also helped attract workers and industry. Sunbelt cities profited from increased defense spending, high-tech industrial development, and greater interest in recreation, as millions moved to sunny areas to relax and retire.
The relocation of industries had a ripple effect on people and institutions in many cities throughout the nation. As the number of manufacturing jobs declined, lower paying SERVICE sector jobs multiplied and unemployment rates increased. Increasing poverty contributed to growing crime rates.
Racial tensions intensified as large numbers of African Americans moved into northern and western cities, continuing the rural to urban migration started in previous decades. As whites moved to the suburbs, African Americans began to move out of traditionally black neighborhoods and closer to all-white areas, sometimes escalating friction between the two groups. At the same time, other groups from rural backgrounds moved into the cities, including migrants from Appalachia and immigrants from Puerto Rico, Mexico, and other parts of Latin America. Between 1940 and 1960, the Puerto Rican population of New York City increased from 70,000 to more than 600,000. In the West, between 1950 and 1960, the Mexican population of Los Angeles doubled, from 300,000 to 600,000. After passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, immigration to American cities from Asia increased as well. This influx of immigrants changed the appearance of the cities, making them more culturally diverse in their makeup. Though these changes resulted in different neighborhood composition, cities remained largely segregated by race with most less fortunate inhabitants having little prospect of moving to the suburbs.
In the 1960s, riots in cities such as Los Angeles, New York, Detroit, and Chicago reflected tensions resulting from social, economic, and racial segregation that reached a breaking point. The proliferation of images of urban violence on television served to reinforce the notion that cities were unsafe, creating a further divide between cities and suburbs.
One response to the growing social, political, and economic inequality of urban America was the creation of government agencies and programs. The Housing Act of 1949 spurred urban redevelopment through slum clearance. Under President Lyndon B. Johnson, Congress passed the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965. The measure allocated almost $3 billion for the rehabilitation of existing housing and the creation of new public housing. New business also began to develop, bringing a boom in the construction of high-rise office buildings. Some cities saw the redevelopment of previously abandoned or run-down blocks. In Boston, during the 1960s, the city tore down old buildings and built a new city hall and office buildings in an effort to revitalize the downtown area. Other regions experienced a revival in architecture and urban planning, as city managers sought new ways to cope with expanding populations. The infusion of new groups of minorities into a number of areas brought with it a mix of cultures resulting in a blending of art, music, and traditions. Many cities experienced a cultural renaissance during the 1960s that continued into the 1970s and beyond.
Other parts of Johnson’s War on Poverty, particularly the Community Action Program (CAP) and
Model Cities program, were intended to help the revitalization of cities by allowing residents to have a voice in public policy. Although the programs had many problems from the beginning, including conflicts between local government and community organizations, they did give some, particularly African Americans, the opportunity to practice political leadership.
Further reading: Randall Bartlett, The Crisis of Americas Cities (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1998); Jon C. Teaford, The Twentieth-Century American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
—Heather L. Tompkins
World History
