INTRODUCTION

In this thesis, from the Treaty of Edirne on 14 September 1829 when the Ottoman Empire abandoned all its rights to the Circassian coast, to the final defeat of the people called “Circassians” on 21 May 1864, the Ottoman Empire’s role in the Russo-Circassian War (1830-1864) will be analyzed. Searching the place and the significance of the Ottoman Empire in the long-lasting resistance of the Circassians against the Russian aggression, on the one hand Sublime Porte’s stable policies over Circassia will be tried to be found out while on the other hand the varieties, will be discussed. Beyond political and military aspects, social, cultural and economic characteristics of the Ottoman-Circassian relations will be searched and highlighted.

How could the Circassians so long resist against Russia’s persistent attacks? Geography and the mountaineers’ commitment for the preservation of their independent way-of-life were probably the most important reasons. One other reason for this stubborn defense was the Polish and Russian deserters, who struggled on the side of the mountaineers as technical workers teaching how to make gunpowder and how to use cannons, and elaborated the nature and tactics of the Russian forces. Apart from that, there is of course a direct or indirect role of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Circassian War as far as the internal and international conditions allowed.

Circassia was so close to the Ottoman Empire, and the trade, especially the slave trade, was so rooted that it could not be possible for Russia to cut off Ottoman-Circassian relations throughout the war. Besides, Islam which flourished among the

Circassians in parallel to the war against Russia made the Ottoman Empire, the state of the Caliph, to be much more important for the Circassian resistance. That’s why the social aspect had a great say-so in understanding the nature of relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Circassians.

The expansion of the Russian rule towards the Ottoman Empire’s core territories, i. e. Balkans and Anatolia can normally be expected to result in further caution of the Ottoman government, which was concerned about the utilization of the local Muslim population in the North Caucasus as a set against the Russian advance. However, the Ottoman archival sources reveal that in the face of the internal and international circumstances, Circassia did not seem to be one of the primary concerns of the Ottoman Empire. More importantly, the preservation of peace with the Russian Empire was one of the main aims of the Porte. Not to forget, those years also coincide with the Tanzimat period when the Ottoman Empire was under a dramatic ideological and institutional transformation trying to reorganize its internal mechanisms. Other internal problems, especially the Egyptian question also added to this internal reformation process, the Ottoman Empire was not in a position to participate actively in the affairs of the Caucasus.

When an opportunity emerged, as in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire did try to exploit it. With the exception of this period; however, it is not possible to claim that the Ottoman Empire pursued an active policy (or maybe any policy for that matter) for the ongoing war in both segments of the Caucasus; it rather tried to prevent any development that might damage the peaceful relations with Russia.

The subject of this research covers the period when the so-called “Eastern Question” became the most important agenda of the Great Powers. Besides Greek, Egyptian, and Straits Questions, one other part of the Eastern Question was the war going on between the Caucasian peoples and Russia. Therefore, Caucasus was not just a part of the rivalry among the regional powers, but it also became a dimension of the Great Power politics.

As for Russia, the Northern Caucasus was a land of unruly and unreliable people, which could be an important handicap for Russia’s further advances, and therefore, as a well-established state policy, the war in the Caucasus should be concluded as soon as possible. This war was totally an internal matter, and any kind of foreign activity related to the Caucasus was treated with great suspicion, and even considered as an act of aggression against Russian interests. Therefore, Ottoman merchants or British adventurers were perceived by the Russian officials with this state of mind.

On the other hand, Britain after the Treaty of Edirne did not cease to question the legal rights of Russia over Circassia, but only through diplomatic maneuvers without risking a war. It should be underlined that there was a powerful private diplomacy, which would foster the Russophobia in Great Britain in 1830s. While David Urquhart was the pioneer of the anti-Russian campaign, journeys and residences of several “adventurers” (Stewart, Knight, Longworth, Bell, and Spencer) in Circassia all worked for the establishment of a public who is dubious about the loyalty of Russia to the preservation of the Vienna regime, and sensitive to the matters of Caucasus. This circle was not totally apart from the British official dom, however propagated a more radical foreign policy against Russia’s activities. The successive British ambassadors in Istanbul i. e. Lord Ponsonby and Stratford Canning were also more convinced of a Russian threat than the British government and the Foreign Office.1

This being the case, by and large, the British government did not perceive Circassia as fundamental issue for the security of its vital interests. Besides Circassia, Russia and Britain were also in competition in Persia, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. However, the rivalry centered in the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

In this connection, Circassian question should be located in the picture of the so-called Eastern Question without ignoring, however, the special social, economic and cultural relationship between the Ottoman Empire and the Circassians. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the internal developments in the Ottoman Empire, international environment, as well as the Russian and British policies and their perceptions of the Caucasus in order to understand the policy and the significance of the Ottoman Empire regarding Circassia.

Since the Edirne Treaty of 1829 is the starting point of this research, at first the question how this treaty affected the situation in Circassia both de jure and de facto should be answered. However, to understand the significance of the Treaty of Edirne, initially, first involvements of the Ottomans and the Russians in Circassia will be explained. Afterwards the Circassian War and the Ottoman role in this war will be analyzed in a chronological order.