Reformation

Educated as a boy by Brethren of the Common Life, Martin Luther attended the University of Erfurt and was ordained a priest in 1507. At the University of Wittenberg, he became professor of biblical studies. As an Augustinian, he was put in charge of several monasteries of his order. When Luther posted his Theses on the Wittenberg church in 1517 to protest the sale of indulgences, his purpose was to reform abuses as a member of the Catholic community. But the text of his Theses was being discussed across Europe, and Luther himself defended it against the noted theologian Johann Eck (1486-1543) in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519. The pope was compelled to excommunicate Luther the following year. After speaking out at the 1521 Diet of Worms, Luther was condemned to death, but he escaped to Wartburg castle with the aid of the elector of Saxony. During his 10 months there, Luther translated the New Testament into German, probably his greatest achievement of the Protestant Reformation. Twelve years later his translation of the entire Bible into German appeared in print. In 1524 Luther renounced his association with the Augustinian order and married a former nun.

For the remainder of his life, Luther focused on taking his message of reformation to the people at large. He translated the liturgy into German, so that the entire congregation chanted with the priest, and he wrote hymns and possibly music for a few of them. Luther was the first to compose catechism booklets illustrated with woodcuts that children could study by themselves; instead of listening to a lecture by a priest reading from the catechism, a child could sit alone and study the text while being instructed by simple woodcut images that reinforced the message. Luther had a huge following during his last two decades. Protestant hymns influenced German poets, many of whom wrote lyrics specifically for religious uses. Although Luther believed that special individuals should be appointed to perform certain religious ceremonies, he taught that church hierarchy was not necessary for salvation. Instead, salvation could be found in the communion of a devout congregation. Men and women worshiped together, in a church without the extravagant devotional imagery prevalent in many Catholic sanctuaries (see Page 53 For information on iconoclasm).

German princes who supported Martin Luther submitted a decree to the 1529 Diet of Speyer that began with the word Protestatio to protest the banning of Lutheranism in their provinces. Thus the reform movement publicly begun by Martin Luther

2.7 Martin Luther at the Wittenberg church door in 1517. Woodcut, German School, 16th century. (Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library)

Religion

2.8 Noah’s ark in an illustrated book of Genesis. Woodcut designed by Bernard Salomon. Lyon, 1558. Such illustrated biblical stories were very popular with adults, and even children who could not read Latin might learn from the pictures. (Photograph courtesy of Sotheby’s, Inc., © 2003)

In 1517 became known as Protestantism. Although heretical individuals had previously broken away from the Catholic Church, their followers either were annihilated, decided to recant, or went underground. Violent fighting occurred again in France during the 16th century during the Wars of Religion (see pages 50-51). Nevertheless Luther, along with Jean Calvin (1509-64) and Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531), successfully led spiritual revolutions throughout northern Europe.

The Protestant Reformation succeeded for several reasons where earlier attempts at breaking away from the Catholic Church had failed. The Great Schism in the Catholic Church, which ended only in 1417, destroyed the historic unity of its government. Simultaneously, the Black Death destroyed entire communities and led to unqualified individuals being appointed as local religious leaders. Both of these events led to abuses of clerical power that were vehemently criticized by reformers of the 15th century. The 16th-century reformers were driven by their hatred of clerical corruption and inspired by the biblical studies of humanistic scholars. Many of Luther’s enemies, including the inquisitors and their assistants, had also been the enemies of certain humanists in the previous century. Finally, in Germany, where the Protestant Reformation first succeeded, local princes and others created their own autonomy from the Holy Roman Emperor by supporting Martin Luther, the new popular force in Germany. Luther had made the strategic decision not to support the German peasants in their uprising of 1524, enhancing his stature in the eyes of the German princes.