Preface

There is no drudgery about labor unless you make it your master.

—From Manufacturer and Builder, Vol. 24 (November 1892), 242

Beginning in the last half of the 18th century and extending into the early 20th century, first Great Britain and then Western Europe, the United States, and several other parts of the globe experienced the vibrant stirrings of a major technical and economic transformation. This development was in great measure the culmination of forces that had gained momentum in Western civilization during the Renaissance of the 14th and 15th centuries and continued with the dramatic discoveries of the Scientific Revolution over the next 200 years. The theoretical and analytical mysteries unlocked by the scientific community laid the foundation for the application of more practical techniques and approaches to harness the new sources of power, the reduction on the sole reliance on traditional sources of labor, and the creation of new organizations and enterprises. The result was the emergence of a new demographic, economic, political, and social map of the Western world and the unparalleled increase in wealth and national prosperity after 1750.

In the 1820s British and French writers coined the phrase Industrial Revolution to identify the changes in manufacturing and production that had initially occurred in Great Britain and by the early 19th century had appeared in the new American republic and on the continent of Europe. These writers compared the dramatic impact of industrialization to the political and social upheaval caused by the French Revolution. Two decades later, Friedrich Engels reinforced the use of the term in his influential work, The Conditions of the Working Class in England. Indeed, historians have long debated the causes, characteristics, expansion, and results of the economic

And industrial developments after 1750, even to the point of identifying two industrial revolutions: the first one dominated by the British prior to 1850 and the second characterized by the rapid advance of industrialization outside of Great Britain after 1850. Yet despite the efforts of some scholars to revise the initial historical interpretation of the Industrial Revolution, the term itself has retained its legitimacy in the literature as no adequate substitute has yet been advanced to better encapsulate the industrial and economic changes of this dynamic era.

This work has as its purpose to survey the scope and impact of the Industrial Revolution, an age that some historians argue is comparable to earlier important epochs that changed mankind. The book is organized into a chronology of selected key events and seven chapters that address important aspects of nearly two centuries of industrialization. It should be emphasized that on occasion there are discrepancies in various sources regarding the rich statistical information related to the Industrial Revolution. Areas such as population growth, number of power looms, and horsepower production, for example, can be illustrated or interpreted in several different ways. As such, I have chosen to present the data using a more conservative approach but one that most assuredly emphasizes the dramatic change of the era. Chapter One provides a historical overview of themes appearing in the work. In addition, it introduces the reader to a brief, and admittedly selective, survey of some of the larger important historical questions and debate surrounding the construct of the Industrial Revolution.

The second chapter sets the stage for an onset of industrialization. The life of Europe as it existed on the eve of the Industrial Revolution is examined. Rising population, the growing impact of science and technology, the appearance of early capitalism and consumerism, and the pre-industrial lifestyle of Europeans are among the themes that set the opening of the Industrial Revolution into perspective.

Chapter Three reviews the influence of the Agricultural Revolution on the emergence of the Industrial Revolution. This topic has drawn serious scrutiny by historians who have debated the scope and depth of its impact. Was it a critical precursor and stimulus to industrialization, or did it evolve simultaneously during the era? The long-standing enclosure movement, advent of modern farming practices such as the Norfolk system and livestock breeding techniques, and the shift of labor from the rural to urban areas play key roles in analyzing the relationship of changes in the agrarian world to the new environment of factories and cities.

Chapter Four surveys the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. There is little debate regarding Great Britain’s role as the powerful engine that started the world on the road to industrialization. This chapter reviews the all-important conditions that existed in Great Britain and paved the way for that nation’s rapid transition to new economic realities. In addition, the growth of infrastructure (roads, canals, and railroads) and the role of cotton textiles, iron production, and mining industries are briefly reviewed to emphasize how quickly Great Britain’s industrialization advanced in comparison to its continental counterparts. Other topics include the rise of the middle class, the plight of the workers, and the environment in the new industrial city, with a particular emphasis on Manchester.

Chapter Five addresses the Industrial Revolution in the United States. A brief look at colonial America provides a point of origin to compare how quickly the United States began to embrace industrialization. This transition occurred notwithstanding a heated debate in the early republic between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson regarding the merits of manufacturing and the later disruption of the Civil War. Despite these potential impediments, the United States marshaled its many resources and distinct advantages such as a plentiful agriculture, an unlimited labor supply assisted by millions of immigrants who flooded the nation after 1840, and a remarkable array of inventors. By the late 19th century the United States had for the most part matched and surpassed Great Britain in almost all measurable categories related to industrialization.

Chapter Six depicts the spread of the Industrial Revolution to the continent of Europe. The nations of Western Europe faced a number of factors, most particularly the havoc wreaked by the Napoleonic era, a period of upheaval that initially impeded their ability to compete with Great Britain. However, after the middle of the 19th century, economic stability and the transfer of British technology to the continent began to change the situation. In spite of starting well behind the more advanced position of Great Britain, Belgium, France, and the German states particularly found the necessary resources and created their own sophisticated industrial bases and began to challenge British industrial supremacy by 1900.

Chapter Seven addresses the impact of the Industrial Revolution on several areas of the non-Western world. To be sure, the growing number of Western nations that industrialized in the 19th century dominated areas such as India, the Middle East, and Latin America as they made feeble attempts to transform their economies. Russia and Japan were the exception. The Russians made remarkable strides in a brief period of time to overcome centuries of conservatism.

However, by the early 20th century the rapidity of change and the disappointment and devastation brought about by the Russo-Japanese War and World War I pushed that nation to revolution and a new economic direction. Japan, on the other hand, made a national decision to embrace industrialization, one that ensured a successful transition through the adoption of Western techniques and adapt them to the Japanese culture.

The conclusion of the book includes biographies of fifteen persons, some well-known and others more obscure, who made important contributions to the Industrial Revolution. In addition, a variety of primary documents such as government reports, literary pieces, and period journal articles survey a variety of topics related the Industrial Revolution in order for the student to gain better perspective, clarity, and a first-hand impression of its complexity and impact without the filter of the present. The work also contains a number of illustrations that provide a visual reinforcement of themes addressed in the book. Finally, a selected bibliography is presented to encourage further study of the Industrial Revolution as a means to gain additional understanding of this important historical era, one that continues to influence our world today.

I wish to thank several persons for their support during this project. I am forever indebted to the series editors, Linda and Marsha Frey, who asked me to become a participant in the series. These outstanding scholars applied a welcome critical eye to the manuscript. They also provided often-needed encouragement and retained remarkable faith in me over the years. Mariah Gumpert at Greenwood Press exhibited extraordinary patience and kindness, especially as my family faced several challenges and crises during the completion of this work. I also sincerely thank the staff of the Prints and Photograph Section of the Library of Congress who assisted me in obtaining important documents and illustrations to supplement the book. Claude El-Khouri and Amanda Davis of the Brevard Community College library staff worked diligently to obtain a number of sources for the work. Eileen Trobaugh, secretary of the Liberal Arts Department at Brevard Community College, helped me to overcome several technical difficulties during the preparation of the manuscript. Finally, my wife Patsy provided constant understanding and generous support as I labored to bring the book to press.