The first phase of the Russo-Circassian War was the war, which took place in the Kabarda territories. Only after the Eastern Circassia, known as Kabarda, was annexed, the war moved to the western part. The first open battle between the Russians and the Kabardians took place near the Malka River in 1771, which resulted in a Russian victory. After the Treaty of Ku9uk Kaynarca the war in Kabarda was intensified. In 1779, the bloodiest battle was fought among the Kabardians and the Russians, in which 50 princes and 350 nobles died. Russia would establish several fortresses in Kabardian lands to isolate Kabarda, especially from the Western Circassians, and to protect the military way to Tbilisi. Kabardians sought the protection of the Porte, and revolted against Russia during the Russo-Ottoman wars of 1787-1791 and 1806-1812. General Yermolov, the military commander of the southern tsarist forces, arrived at the scene in 1816. In 1821, Yermolov demanded that the Kabardians living in mountainous areas move to the plains to facilitate their control. Then, the Caucasian military line was pushed further into the Kabardian territory and many massacres were committed by the Russian forces.
The Kabardian resistance was localized and badly organized. The Circassian princes failed to form a united front, and the Russians took the advantage of the internal rivalries. In spite of their defeat, the Kabardians were always on the lookout for an external ally to rise up against the occupiers. They maintained contacts with Shamil and the other Circassians. However, with the exception of the year 1846, it is not possible to mention about any armed stand of a significant dimensions against Russians after Yermolov effectively crushed the organized Kabardian resistance.25 Actually Russia was successful in its aim to provide the security of the military way to Tbilisi, and to prevent a North Caucasian union by controlling Kabarda.
The war in the North-Eastern Caucasus, which is more popular and widely known with its holy war and especially with its legendary leader Sheikh Shamil, took place simultaneously and with many parallels with the war in the Circassian lands. However, the nature of the resistance in the North-Western Caucasus was radically different from the war in Circassia. It was the “muridizm”26 That unified the Eastern part of the Caucasus against Russia. The muridizm started in Dagestan under the leadership of the legendary Sheikh Mansur in the last decades of the eighteenth century when the Russians had newly started to establish their rule in the Northern Caucasus, and became much popular and truly organized from 1820s that is the time of Gazi Muhammed (Kazi Molla), the first Imam of the movement. After Gazi Muhammed and the second Imam Hamzat Bek Sheikh Shamil became as the third Imam who took the leadership of the holy war in the North-Eastern Caucasus. Sheikh Shamil was most successful in establishing a state with all its institutions, and even managing to unify the Northern Caucasus in certain respects. His naibs, especially Muhammed Emin played a prominent role in the Circassian struggle.27
The nature of the societal relations and the nature of the war in the NorthWestern Caucasus were significantly different from that of Sheikh Shamil’s state. Contrary to the egalitarian societal relations in Dagestan and Chechnya, the Circassian society divided into the classes in which the nobility kept to exercise many rights. However, during the war against Russia, some kind of a civil war was taking place in Circassia, which reduced the power of the noble class. Secondly, Islam was still insufficiently established in Circassia. The war itself accelerated the Islamization of the region in connection with the effect of the Ottoman Empire and Shamil’s naibs in Circassia. Thirdly, being close to the Black Sea, Circassia was strategically very important for the Ottoman Empire, and Circassians had deep-rooted contacts and relations with the Ottomans. Despite all the resistant activities
And diplomatic efforts of Russia, trade between Circassia and the Ottoman Empire
Never ended even in the very harsh times of the war.
Circassian trade needs special attention to understand the Circassian relations with Russia and the Ottoman Empire. There were certain basic characteristics of the Circassian trade: First, in Circassia trade was overwhelmingly conducted with the primitive method of bartering goods. Second, internal trade in Circassia was insignificant and the external one was vital. The Circassians could sell slaves and certain agricultural products, and needed to buy such materials as salt, fabric, and munitions. The abundance of agricultural and animal products, as well as slaves also resulted in the decrease of the price of the export materials, thereby, presenting a very lucrative trade for the importers. Third, the main commodity was slaves, and the direction of the flaw was the Ottoman lands, especially Istanbul.28 29
According to the Russian officials, the prerequisite of the submission of the Circassians was the end of the Circassian relations with the Ottoman Empire. To this effect, they established several forts in the Black Sea coast composing the Black Sea Coast Line. However, Russia could not succeed in preventing Ottoman-Circassian relations, moreover, this policy prevented the establishment of healthy relations between the Circassians and Russia.
People of the Northern Caucasus, faced with the Russian attack, soon understood that without foreign aid it was not possible to get the Russians out of their homeland. This foreign aid might only come from or through the Ottoman territories. And Britain might be the supporter of the Circassian struggle if it perceived that a Russian Caucasus would be harmful for its best interests. Therefore, the Circassian envoys would always try to demonstrate how detrimental to the British interests the fall of Circassia was.
In fact, both the Ottoman Empire and Britain were anxious about the Russian advance, and both were sympathetic to the resistance in the Northern Caucasus. However, neither the Ottoman Empire nor Britain would commit themselves to a struggle against Russia for the sake of the Caucasians; therefore their sympathies were not translated into a real alliance with the Northern Caucasians. However, the Ottoman Empire, which lost the entire Circassian coast from Anapa to St. Nicholas as a result of the Edirne Treaty, did not give up all its interests there. The Circassians not only were to play important roles against Russia in the Crimean War and the 1877-78 War, but they would also continue to be a potential leverage for the Ottoman Empire in a possible conflict between the Ottomans and the Russians as being sworn enemies of the Russian Empire.
While the rise of the threat from the North increased the strategic importance of the Caucasus for the Ottoman Empire, the importance of the Ottoman Empire for the mountaineers increased even more significantly. However, its incapability to affect the Russian war in the Caucasus directly, the Ottoman Empire could not involve actively in the Caucasian affairs. This, by no means, contradicts with the significance of the Ottoman Empire regarding the Russo-Circassian war. First of all, it was the place where the Circassian and Polish emigres made plans and preparations, and dealt diplomatic negotiations for the Russo - Circassian war. Moreover, the Circassian-Ottoman trade, the main financial and material source for the continuation of the war, never ceased till the final end of the war in Circassia.
World History
