History

History, in the Renaissance, meant something entirely different than it had in previous epochs. For better or worse, Renaissance humanists conceived of themselves as existing in a pivotal historical position, in a golden age quite superior to the “gothic” spirit of the immediate past. What had happened in the past was viewed as different not only in kind, but also in degree. Periodization of history began in the Renaissance; 15th-century Italian historians believed that the Roman empire ended with the transfer of its capital to Constantinople. Because their focus was on Rome and Roman civilization, they refused to accept most medieval culture as valid representations of civilized society—even though medieval chivalric romances were among the most popular forms of literature read during this time. Renaissance writers considered themselves qualified to interpret history rather than simply to report it, year by year, as had been done in medieval chronicles. As in other forms of literature, their models were classical authors; Livy was an important initial source, and Tacitus appreciated later in the 15th century. As humanistic writers studied the texts of ancient history, they learned to question secondary sources, and to recognize unreliable evidence, and they began to understand patterns of behavior and motivation. While nationalist fervor colored the historical interpretations of some Renaissance writers, others concentrated on the lessons that scholarly historical writing could teach all educated readers.

The first Renaissance history was, of course, written in Latin. Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444) contributed the earliest example, Historia florentini populi (History of the Florentine people, not published until 1610), of which many copies circulated in manuscript. He set high standards for this subgenre of writing, in both style and comprehension of historical evidence. Most 15th-century historical writing was accomplished in Ciceronian Latin prose, stately and sophisticated. History written in the vernacular, however, often retained medieval characteristics, such as archaisms and episodic form. One of the best gothic “historical” works written during the Renaissance was Les illustrations de Gaule et singularites de Troie (The glories of Gaul and distinctions of Troy, 1510-13) by Jean Lemaire de Belges (c. 1473-1525), which was part legend and part historical fact. By the mid-16th century, entire historical works were being written on near-contemporary subjects, such as Paolo Giovio’s (1483-1552) Historiarum sui temporis libri (History of his time, 1550-52), mainly concerning the wars that were devastating Italy. Various Italian writers attempted to analyze and understand the causes and consequences of the Italian Wars, including the sack of Rome in 1527. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), best known for his pragmatic advice to rulers in Il Principe (The prince), also wrote the important Istorie fiorentine (History of Florence, 1525, in Italian). This work praised the republic of Florence and rationalized its current problems as stemming from mismanagement by the Medicis. Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540) wrote his famous Storia d’Italia (History of Italy, published posthumously in 1561) using the archives of Florence as his chief source of information.

Philippe de Commynes (c. 1446-c. 1511), Flemish historian, produced annals of the French monarchy published as Memoires (1524). Translated into several languages, this text contributed to European knowledge of early Renaissance France. In France, humanistic history was best represented by Jacques Auguste De Thou (1553-1617), whose Historia sui temporis (History of his time, 1604, part 1) discussed the wars of religion from a scholarly and relatively unbiased point of view. In Spain, the unification of Aragon and Castile in the latter 15th century under Ferdinand V (1452-1516) and Isabella I (1451-1504) awakened interest in Spanish historiography. Nevertheless, it was 1592 before a complete history of Spain was published, by the Spanish philosopher and jurist Juan de Mariana (1536-1623/24), Historiae de rebus Hispaniae (History of the affairs of Spain). Originally published in Latin, this comprehensive work was quickly translated into Spanish. Historical writing in Germany, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland was strongly affected by the Reformation. In both England and Germany, history was written to justify the “restoration” of religious order by Protestant rulers. Mention should be made of Jewish historiography, especially that written after the Jews

Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe

Were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. This event, combined with the new research methods of Renaissance humanism, prompted considerations of persecution from a truly historical perspective. Jewish scholars also attempted to reconcile historical contradictions in rabbinical texts.

BIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHY

Biography and autobiography are specific subgenres within history, and the powerful rulers who patronized Renaissance writers were pleased when scholars included their patron’s genealogy and biography in historical analyses. Oddly, the word biography was not known during the Renaissance, though the histories of individual lives were presented as examples of good or bad character. Biographical works of rulers sometimes were illustrated with “portraits” of the subjects, many of which were idealized representations rather than lifelike portraits of the actual person. Classical writers, particularly the Greek authors Xenophon and Plutarch, provided the models for writing about individual lives. Biography—fabricated as well as real—was interwoven with history. Autobiography was sometimes written by an unreliable narrator, for example, in the exaggerated accounts of the artist Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571). His autobiography, not published until 1728, contains many outrageous situations in which Cellini is always superior and always proved right. Although immensely entertaining and historically useful for details about art processes and court life, such quasi-fictional autobiography is more like a novel than the historical documentation of a person’s life. Michel de Montaigne wrote the most famous autobiography of the Renaissance: Published between 1580 and 1595, the clear, firm prose of his Essais (Essays) supported religious tolerance and philosophical neostoicism. The quality of his French prose probably helped raise standards of prose composition during the latter 16th century. Within the work Montaigne discussed other types of writing, such as letters, which he wrote himself rather than dictating to a secretary: “I never copy them over, and have accustomed my eminent correspondents who know me to put up with my erasures, my words written one over the other. . . . Those I work hardest over turn out the worst” (Montaigne 1999, pp. 146-147).

Collections of autobiographical letters, considered as quasi-literary forms during the Renaissance, are important to scholars today for their documentation of everyday life as well as of the decorum usually required in polite society. Pietro Aretino (1492-1556), for example, left numerous insights about living in Venice: “Carriages in their places! Litters for those who like them! The deuce with horseback riding! . . . But the little gondolas rest you, they lull you to sleep, they soothe your spirit, limbs, and body” (Aretino 1967, p. 320). For women’s history, letters document an important subculture of Renaissance life. Many women who otherwise were not known to have written anything at all have left an abundance of letters. A few of these collections were published during the Renaissance, notably Vittoria Franco’s (1546-91) Lettere famiglia a diversi (Friendly letters to diverse men, 1580). These letters gave advice to various powerful and famous men troubled by love affairs. Within the subgenre of letter writing, fictional letters were enjoyed for their erudition and wit. A good example is the book Eptstolas familiares (Friendly letters, 1539-42) of the Spanish writer Fray Antonio de Guevara (c. 1480-1545), a Franciscan who served the royal court as a writer and preacher. His most famous work was Reloj de prtncipes y libro aureo de Marco Aurelio (Mirror of princes and golden book of Marcus Aurelius, 1529), containing ideals for the Christian ruler. This book was in epistolary format, purporting to be letters written by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. With collections of fictional epistles, “historical” writing approached the novel or novella, a major subgenre of prose that originated during the Renaissance.