Ca. 400,000-1100 B. C.E
From Caves to Towns How did early peoples evolve from bands of hunter-gatherers to settled farming communities?
Mesopotamian Civilization How did the Sumerians create a complex society in the arid climate of Mesopotamia?
The Spread of Mesopotamian Culture How did the Babylonians unite Mesopotamia politically and culturally and spread that culture to the broader world?
Egypt, the Land of the Pharaohs (3100-1200 B. C.E.)
How did Egypt’s geography contribute to the rise of a unique culture, and what was the role of the pharoah in this society?
The Hittites and the End of an Era (ca. 1640-1100 b. c.e.)
How did the Hittites rise to power, and how did they facilitate the exchange of ideas throughout the Near East? How did the Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures survive the fall of empires?
INDIVIDUALS IN SOCIETY: Nefertiti, the "Perfect Woman"
IMAGES IN SOCIETY: The Iceman
LISTENING TO THE PAST: A Quest for Immortality
Osiris. Egyptian lord of life and death, powerful and serene, here depicted in his full regalia. (G. Dagli-Orti/The Art Archive)
I he civilization and cultures of the modern Western world, like great rivers, JL have many sources. Peoples in western Europe developed numerous communities uniquely their own but also sharing some common features. They mastered such diverse subjects as astronomy, mathematics, geometry, trigonometry, engineering, religious practices, and social organization. Yet the earliest of these peoples did not record their learning and lore in systems of writing. Their lives and customs are consequently largely lost to us.
Other early peoples confronted many of the same basic challenges as those in Europe. They also made progress, but they took the important step of recording their experiences in writing. The most enduring innovations occurred in the ancient Near East, a region that includes the lands bordering the Mediterranean’s eastern shore, the Arabian peninsula, parts of northeastern Africa, and perhaps above all, Mesopotamia, the area of modern Iraq. Fundamental to the development of Western civilization and culture was the invention of writing by the Sumerians, which allowed knowledge of the past to be preserved. It also facilitated the spread and accumulation of learning, science, and literature. Ancient Near Eastern civilizations also produced the first written law codes, as well as religious concepts that still permeate daily life.
How did early peoples evolve from bands of hunter-gatherers to settled farming communities?
Paleolithic period The time between 400,000 and 7000 b. c.e., when early peoples began making primitive stone tools, survived by hunting and gathering, and dwelled in temporary shelters.
Nomads Homeless, independent people who lead roaming lives, always in search of pasturage for their flocks.
Neolithic period The period between 7000 and 3000 b. c.e. that serves as the dividing line between anthropology and history; the term itself refers to the new stone tools that came into use at this time.
Virtually every day brings startling news about the path of human evolution. We now know that by about 400,000 b. c.e. early peoples were making primitive stone tools, which has led historians to refer to this time as the Paleolithic (pay-lee-oh-LITH-ik) period. During this period, which lasted until about 7000 b. c.e., people survived as gatherers and hunters, usually dwelling in caves or temporary shelters. These nomads (NO-madz) led roaming lives, always in search of new food sources. (See the feature "Images in Society: The Iceman.”)
Settled communities began to emerge in the Neolithic (nee-oh-LITH-ik) period, usually dated between 7000 and 3000 b. c.e. The term Neolithic stems from the new stone tools that came into use at that time. People used these tools to manage crops and animals, leading to fundamental changes in civilization.
Sustained agriculture made possible a stable and secure life. With this settled routine came the evolution of towns and eventually of cities. Neolithic farmers usually raised more food than they could consume, so their surpluses permitted larger, healthier populations. Population growth in turn created an even greater reliance on settled farming, as only systematic agriculture could sustain the increased numbers of people. Since surpluses of food could also be bartered for other commodities, the Neolithic era witnessed the beginnings of the large-scale exchange of goods. Neolithic farmers also improved their tools and agricultural techniques. They domesticated bigger, stronger animals to work for them, invented the plow, and developed new mutations of seeds. By 3000 b. c.e. they had invented the wheel. Agricultural surpluses also made possible the division of labor. It freed some people to become artisans who made tools, pottery vessels, woven baskets, clothing, and jewelry. In short, life became more complex yet also more comfortable for many.
These developments generally led to the further evolution of towns and a whole new way of life. People not necessarily related to one another created rudimentary
Section Review
Human communities evolved from bands of hunter-gatherers in the Paleolithic period (until 7000 B. C.E.) to stable farming communities in the Neolithic period (7000-3000 B. c.e.).
Neolithic innovations included stone tools, the wheel, large-scale exchange of goods, and greater complexity, including division of labor.
Agricultural surpluses allowed the evolution of towns, government, and law.
Prosperous, well-organized communities led to the contruction of sophisticated sites such as Stonehenge.
Irrigation The solution to the problem of arid climates and scant water supplies, a system of watering land and draining to prevent buildup of salt in the soil.
Seen in regal isolation, Stonehenge sits among the stars and in April 1997 was along the path of the comet Hale-Bopp. Long before Druids existed, a Neolithic society laboriously built this circle to mark the passing of the seasons. (Jim Burgess)
Governments that transcended the family. These governments, led by a recognized central authority, made decisions that channeled the shared wisdom, physical energy, and resources of the whole population toward a common goal. These societies made their decisions according to custom, the generally accepted norms of traditional eonduet. Here was the beginning of law. Towns also meant life in individual houses or groups of them, which led to greater personal independence. People erected public buildings and religious monuments, evidence of their growing wealth and communal cooperation. Some of these groups also protected their possessions and themselves by raising walls.
A mute but engaging glimpse of a particular Neolithic society can be seen today in southern England. Between 4700 and 2000 b. c.e. arose the Stonehenge (STOHN-henj) people, named after the famous stone circle on Salisbury (SAWLZ-ber-ee) Plain. Though named after a single spot, this culture spread throughout Great Britain, Ireland, and Brittany in France. Stonehenge and neighboring sites reveal the existence of prosperous, well-organized, and centrally led communities that were able to pool material and human resources in order to raise the circles. Stonehenge indicates an intellectual world that encompassed astronomy, the environment, and religion. The circle is oriented toward the midwinter sunset and the midsummer sunrise. It thus marked the clocklike celestial change of the seasons. This silent evidence proves the existence of a society prosperous enough to endure over long periods during which lore about heaven and earth could be passed along to successive generations. It also demonstrates that these communities considered themselves members of a wider world that they shared with the deities of nature and the broader universe.
How did the Sumerians create a complex society in the arid climate of Mesopotamia?
The origins of Western civilization are generally traced to an area that is today not seen as part of the West: Mesopotamia (mes-oh-puh-TAY-mee-uh), the Greek name for the land between the Euphrates (you-FRAY-teez) and Tigris (TIE-gris) Rivers. There the arid climate confronted the peoples with the hard problem of farming with scant water supplies. Farmers learned to irrigate their land and later to drain it to prevent the buildup of salt in the soil. Irrigation on a large scale, like
Building stone circles in Western Europe, demanded organized group effort. That in turn underscored the need for strong central authority to direct it. This corporate spirit led to governments in which individuals subordinated some of their particular concerns to broader interests. These factors made urban life possible in a demanding environment. By about 3000 b. c.e. the Sumerians (SOO-mehr-ee-uhnz), whose origins are mysterious, established a number of cities in the southernmost part of Mesopotamia, which became known as Sumer (see Map 1.1). The fundamental innovation of the Sumerians was the creation of writing, which evolved from a tool for recording business transactions to the means of promoting and preserving cultural ideas.
MAP 1.1 Spread of Cultures in the Ancient Near East
This map depicts the area of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, a region often called the “cradle of civilization." Map 1.2 on page 14 shows the balance of power that later extended far beyond the regions depicted in Map 1.1. [1] Does this expansion indicate why Mesopotamia and Egypt earned the title of “cradle"? [2] What geographical features of this region naturally suggest the direction in which civilization spread? [3] Why did the first cultures of Mesopotamia spread farther than the culture of Egypt spread?
3200 B. C.E.
Ca. 3200-2200 B. C.E.
Ca. 3100 B. C.E.
3100-ca. 1333 B. C.E.
3000-1000 B. C.E.
Ca. 2700-1000 B. C.E.
Ca. 2660-1640 B. C.E. ca. 2600-1200 B. C.E.
Ca. 2000-1595 B. C.E. ca. 1790 B. C.E.
Ca. 1600-1200 B. C.E. ca. 1570-1075 B. C.E. ca. 1400 B. C.E.
Ca. 1300-1100 B. C.E.
Development of wheeled transport and invention of cuneiform writing
Sumerian and Akkadian domination in Mesopotamia
Invention of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
Evolution of Egyptian polytheism and belief in personal immortality
Origins and development of religion in Mesopotamia
Arrival of Indo-European peoples in western Asia and Europe
Old and Middle Kingdoms in Egypt
Expansion of Mesopotamian trade with neighbors
Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia
Epic of Gilgamesh and Hammurabi's law code
Hittite power in Anatolia New Kingdom in Egypt
Development of Phoenician alphabet
Increased use of iron in western Asia
World History
