The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine, a cornerstone of American foreign policy, was the result of events that began in Europe. Following the Napoleonic Wars, a Quadruple Alliance was created in 1815 among Great Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria. France was admitted in 1818, making it the Quintuple Alliance. Its purpose was to restore the world to prewar status, which could have included the return of Spanish rule over colonies in Latin America. The British, who remained detached from the Alliance's continental moves, hoped to keep the former Latin American colonies free from Spanish control in order to advance their own commercial interests. British Foreign Secretary George Canning proposed a joint Anglo-American action to prevent intervention of the Alliance nations in the New World.

Although President Monroe's informal advisers, Jefferson and Madison, urged cooperation with the British, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams had other ideas. He was more concerned about Russia's claims in the Pacific Northwest and about potential French or Spanish intervention in South America. Russia owned Alaska and had ventured down the Pacific coast into California, where they built a fort. Arguing that the United States should not be following "in the wake of a British man of war," Adams recommended that the United States act unilaterally to establish policy with regard to the Western Hemisphere.41 Adams and Monroe decided to use the president's annual message to Congress as a platform to announce the policy. Working with his secretary of state, President Monroe presented a draft to his cabinet on November 21. It included the ideas Adams had put forth in responding to Canning's proposal. (See the Monroe Doctrine in the appendix.)

The final document was delivered on December 2, 1823. It included the following points:

1.  The American continents _ are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers;

2.  In the wars of the European powers _ we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy to do so.

3.  The political system of the allied [European] powers is essentially different _ from that of America.

4.  The United States should consider any attempt on [the part of the European powers] to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to our peace and safety.

5.  With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered, and shall not interfere.

6.  With the governments [in Central and South America] who have declared their independence, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling. . their destiny, by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States.

The European response to the Monroe Doctrine (not so called until after 1850) was one of ridicule and scorn; they called it "haughty," "arrogant," even "monstrous."42 Europeans claimed that the doctrine had no standing in international law. Although the U. S. had shunned British overtures, the effectiveness of the Monroe Doctrine was nevertheless dependent on the Royal Navy. Yet the announcement of the Monroe Doctrine and the response underscored one significant result of the War of 1812: United States independence was no longer an issue. The most severe challenges to the Monroe Doctrine were to come later in American history as America assumed a protective stance toward its southern neighbors, which often created resentment in those nations.

The Hundred Years' Peace left the United States free to pursue its continental destiny essentially undisturbed by European affairs. Although Europe was by no means free from turmoil for the remainder of the century, there would not be another major war in the Western World until 1914. Americans felt detached enough from Europe that suggestions were sometimes advanced that the United States should abolish the State Department (or at least the diplomatic corps) on the grounds of irrelevance. While none of those suggestions were seriously considered, the fact that some people felt that way is an indication of American attitudes.