GLOSSARY

Activism Political involvement, sometimes militant. Used in reference to modern Indian organizations with political and social goals.

Adobe A kind of brick made from mud and straw that is sun-dried (or a type of mud used as a mortar to hold stones together). Used by Pueblo Indians in their architecture.

Adz A woodworking tool with an arched axlike blade at right angles to the handle.

Allotment A policy of the U. S. federal government, starting with the General Allotment Act of 1887 and lasting until 1934. Under the policy, Indian lands held by tribes were broken up and distributed to individual Indians. A large portion of lands held by Indians in Oklahoma was allotted.

Applique A technique in decorating articles of clothing or other objects in which pieces of one material are applied to another. (See also ribbonwork.)

Archaeology The recovery and study of objects remaining from early cultures.

Artifact An object made by humans, especially a tool, weapon, ornament, or piece of pottery.

Assimilation A policy practiced by whites, especially in the late 1800s and early 1900s, in an effort to absorb Indians into mainstream culture. Also called “acculturation.”

Atlatl A spear-thrower that increases the leverage of the human arm and lets hunters throw spears harder and straighter. It was made by Prehistoric Indians from a stick about two feet long, with hide hoops to provide a firm grasp, a stone weight for balance, and a hook and groove to hold the spear shaft.

Awl A pointed tool for making holes in wood or hide.

Babiche Rawhide strips, used in toboggans, snow-shoes, and other objects, for binding and support.

Ball court An ancient playing field, sometimes sunken and sometimes paved, common in Mesoamerica, where games were played with a rubber ball.

Balsa A type of raft or boat made with rushes, especially tule, tied in bundles in a cylindrical shape. The bundles would become water-logged after a period of use, but would dry out in the sun. Typical of California Indians.

Band A subdivision or subtribe of an Indian tribe, often made up of an extended family living together, traveling together, and hunting and gathering together. Historically, the word band often appears when a part of a tribe breaks off from the main group under a new leader. In Canada, different selfgoverning groups, although sharing the same tribal descent, sometimes are referred to as bands. (See also nation, tribe.)

Bannerstone A polished stone artifact, often in a winged, birdlike shape, used as a weight on an atlatl or on a staff as a symbol of authority. Sometimes called a birdstone. (See also atlatl.)

Barabara A large communal house of the Aleut and some Inuit bands as well; a kind of pithouse. A square pit, about two-feet deep, is lined with planks that extend above the surface; planks and poles, often driftwood or whale ribs, are used to form a roof, which is covered with sod, except over a smokehole. The door faces east.

Beadwork Decorative work in beads, stitched on clothing, bags, and other items. Beadwork commonly replaced quillwork among Indians after Europeans brought glass beads to the Americas. (See also quillwork.)

Bison See buffalo.

Black Drink A tea made by Southeast Indians, from Ilex vomitoria, tobacco, and other ingredients, for ceremonial purposes. The drink induced vomiting and was thought to purify the body.

Bola A hunting weapon made from two or more stone weights tied on thongs that are attached to a longer line. When thrown, it entangles the legs of mammals or the wings of birds.

Booger mask A carved mask of the Cherokee, used in the Booger Dance. Booger masks have exaggerated features and expressions, often representing non-Indians, as well as animals. The names of the booger masks are often comical and obscene. The term booger is derived from the same European root as boogie in boogieman (bogeyman).

Breechcloth A cloth, usually made from deerskin, used to cover the loins. Also called “breechclout” or loincloth.

Buffalo (American bison, bison) A hoofed mammal with a dark-brown coat, shaggy mane, and short, curved horns. Buffalo, or bison, were essential to the Plains Indians for food, clothing, shelter, tools, and ceremonial objects.

Bull boat A circular, cup-shaped boat made from hide stretched over a wooden frame. Used by Indians of the upper Missouri River.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) An agency of the U. S.

Federal government that handles Indian issues; part of the Department of the Interior since 1849. It was formed in 1824 as the Office of Indian Affairs within the War Department. It was officially designated under its present name in 1947.

Bustle An attachment to clothing on the hind side, typically of feathers, for wearing in dances. Some tribes wore shields as bustles. In the Grass Dance, the bustle is a tail of braided grass.

Cacique A chief or headman. Cacique is from the Arawak term kassequa, applied by the Spanish to the rulers of various Caribbean, Mesoamerican, and South American Indians. The term was also passed via the Spanish to the Pueblo Indians, some of whom use the term in reference to priests.

Calendar stick A wooden stick with cuts and notches representing events in tribal history. Typical of the Tohono O’odham (Papago) tribe.

Calumet See sacred pipe.

Camas A plant having edible roots and bulbs, important in the diet of the Plateau Indians and northern Great Basin Indians.

Camp circle A circular formation of tipis, indicating kinship and political status.

Canoe A sleek boat with pointed ends, propelled by paddles. Some canoes were made of wood frames with bark coverings; others were dugouts, carved from a single log.

Cassava (manioc) A tropical plant with a large starchy root, important in the diet of the Arawak (Taino).

Caste system Social and political organization in which classes of society are separated by hereditary rank or profession. Common among Southeast Indians and Mesoamerican Indians.

Catlinite See pipestone.

Celt An ungrooved ax, used mainly without a handle, for woodworking.

Ceremonial object Any object used in religious rituals or with a sacred tribal meaning.

Chert A kind of rock, similar to flint, which can be shaped into tools or spear and arrow points. (See also flaking.)

Chickee A kind of house, raised on stilts and open on four sides, with a wood platform and thatched roof. The Seminole lived in chickees.

Chiefdom A tribe in which a chief has absolute power over other tribal members. Used in reference to some Southeast tribes.

Chinampa An artificial island made by piling silt and plant matter on wickerwork baskets. The Aztec used this technique to create additional land for their city of Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco.

City-state A city and its surrounding territory, with a government independent of other cities. Used in reference to Mesoamerican Indians. Some among the Mound Builders also lived in what might be called city-states.

Clan A social group within a tribe, made up of several families who trace descent from a common ancestor.

Cliff dwelling A dwelling along the walls of cliffs and canyons, on their ledges and in their caves and recesses. Modification of a natural structure was common through digging and the adding of stone or adobe walls. Typical of the Anasazi culture.

Coiling A technique of making pottery in which ropelike coils of clay are built up from the bottom of the pot, then smoothed over to form the inner and outer walls. Also used to describe a similar technique of weaving baskets.

Confederacy A political union of two or more tribes, often for military purposes. The terms alliance, confederation, and league also are used.

Conquistador The Spanish word for “conqueror.” Used in reference to Spanish explorers and soldiers who subjugated Indian peoples.

Contact A term used to describe the first meetings between Indian peoples and Europeans or Euroamericans, with subsequent cultural changes among the Indians. Precontact refers to the period before Indians met whites (see also “preColumbian”). Postcontact refers to the period after Indians established communication and trade with whites. “Contact” for one tribe might have come at a different time than for another.

Corral An enclosure made of stones, wood, or brush for trapping and confining animals.

Council A gathering of tribal leaders for discussion of plans. Some councils are intertribal.

Coup Touching an enemy in battle with the hand or an object to prove one’s bravery. Plains Indians used “coup sticks” in some instances, rather than true weapons, and they “counted coup.”

Coureur de bois Literally, French for “runner of the woods.” A fur trader of French descent who worked independently of the large trading companies and who lived most of the time with Indians. (See also voyageur.)

Cradleboard A carrier for babies, usually made of wood and leather, worn on the back.

Creation myth A tribal legend, recounting the supernatural origin of the tribe. Also called emergence myth.

Culture area A geographical region where different Indian tribes had similar ways of life. The culture areas are a system of classification used to organize tribes.

Culture hero A legendary figure, thought to have supernatural powers and usually considered a tribal ancestor.

Deadfall A trap in which a heavy object, such as a log or a stone, is used to drop on the prey.

Dentalium (pl., dentalia) A slender univalve shellfish found in Canadian Pacific waters. The shells were hung on string and used as money or to decorate clothing. Also called “money-tooth shells” or “tooth shells.”

Dialect A variation of a language, different from other dialects of the same language in vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.

Digging stick A stick carved to a point, used to prepare soil for farming and to dig up wild edible roots and insects.

Dugout A type of boat made by hollowing out a log. (See also canoe.)

Earth lodge A large dwelling, usually dome-shaped, with a log frame covered with smaller branches or other plant matter, then packed with mud or sod. Typical of the Mandan and other Prairie and Plains tribes.

Earthwork See mound.

Emergence myth See creation myth.

False Face A wooden mask carved and worn by a member of the False Face Society of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee). The masks, representing the forest spirits known as Faces of the Forest, are carved on a living tree; a ceremony of prayer and the offering of tobacco is held while cutting them out. They are believed to frighten away malevolent spirits that cause illness.

Federal recognition The outcome of the process establishing a government-to-government trust relationship between an Indian tribe and the United States government, known as the “Federal Acknowledgment Process.” Federally recognized tribes, or those with trust status, are entitled to special programs provided by the government. More than 300 tribal groups are now recognized by the federal government; many others are seeking recognition.

Fetish A small object, such as a carved-stone animal, believed to have power to protect or help its owner.

Fire drill A device for making fire in which one stick is twirled rapidly in a hole of another piece of wood, creating enough friction to ignite wood powder or shredded grass.

Firing The process of baking pottery to make it hard.

Flaking To remove chips of stone, usually from chunks of flint, chert, or obsidian, in order to shape tools or spear and arrow points. In percussion-flaking, the chips are removed by striking with a tool of stone, bone, or wood. In pressure flaking, the chips are removed by applying pressure with a tool of bone or antler.

Flint A kind of rock, a variety of quartz that can be worked into tools and points through flaking. (See also flaking.)

Fluting Grooves or channels in points. (See also point.)

Ghost Dance An Indian religion of the late 19th century founded by the Northern Paiute (Numu) mystic Wovoka and popular for a number of years among many Plains tribes. The main ritual was a dance to bring about the restoration of traditional tribal ways.

Glyph writing See pictograph.

Gorget An ornament or piece of armor, usually made of shell or cooper, worn over the throat.

Grass house (grass lodge) A house covered with grass. Such a dwelling traditionally had long poles erected in a circle, usually 40 to 50 feet in diameter, with the tops meeting in a domed or conical shape; the framework was tied together with cordage, then covered with grass or thatch. Typical of the Caddo and Wichita.

Hammock A swinging bed or couch, a type of furniture, suspended between two trees or other supports. A Native American invention, adopted worldwide, becoming for centuries the dominant sleeping place on European ships. Typical of the Arawak (Taino).

Hieroglyphics See pictograph.

Hogan A dwelling with a log and stick frame covered with mud or sod (or occasionally made from stone). It can be cone-shaped, six-sided, or eight-sided. It traditionally faces east. The Navajo lived in hogans.

Hunting-gathering Obtaining food through hunting, fishing, and foraging for wild plants, without farming.

Igloo A dome-shaped dwelling made from blocks of ice. Also called a snow house. Some Inuit lived in igloos.

Incising A technique of decorating pottery by cutting a design in the still-wet clay with a sharp tool.

Indian Territory A tract west of the Mississippi set aside as a permanent homeland for Indians in the 1830s, then diminished over the following years until it became the state of Oklahoma in 1907.

Isolate See language isolate.

Jade A kind of rock, usually pale green in color, used to make sculptures and jewelry.

Jerky Sun-dried strips of meat.

Jimsonweed A tall poisonous plant of the nightshade family, with large trumpet-shaped flowers and prickly fruit. Indians of California, the Southwest, and Mesoamerica made a tea from jimsonweed leaves, stems, and roots for ritualistic and medicinal purposes.

Kachina (katchina) A supernatural being in the religion of the Hopi, Zuni, and other Pueblo Indians. Kachina masks are worn in tribal ceremonies. Kachina dolls are carved icons of the deities.

Karmak A type of earth-covered pithouse of the Inuit, about five to six feet underground and two to three feet above, with a frame of wood or whalebone. The entrance is an underground passageway.

Kashim A ceremonial house and clubhouse of the Inuit. In Alaska, these structures were typically rectangular; in eastern regions, circular kashim were generally found. They were constructed with post-and-beam framework and sod covering, as well as of ice blocks, like igloos. Many were semisubterranean with secret passageways.

Kayak A one - or two-person boat with an enclosed cockpit, made by stretching hide over a wooden frame. Typical of the Inuit.

Kill site An archaeological site where remains of many animals have been found along with human artifacts.

Kinnikinnik A mixture of tobacco and other plant matter, such as willow bark, for smoking. An Algon-quian word.

Kiva An underground ceremonial chamber or clubhouse. Typical of Southwest Indians.

Labret An ornamental plug of shell, bone, or stone, worn in the lower lip (or sometimes in the chin).

Lacrosse A game invented and played by eastern Indians, using long-handled rackets and a small ball. Lacrosse is now played all over the world.

Maize

Land cession Land given up by Indians to whites through a treaty. Most land cessions were forced upon the Indians against their will. (See also treaty.)

Land claim A tribe’s legal assertion of rights to a particular tract of land based on ancestral use.

Language family (language stock) A term used in linguistics to describe two or more languages, distinct but with elements in common and related historically in that they are descended (or assumed to be descended) from a common language.

Language isolate A unique language with few or no elements in common with other languages.

Language phylum (language superstock) A grouping of language families, based on elements in common, including vocabulary, grammar, and phonetics.

Lean-to A temporary, open brush shelter, generally consisting of a single-pitched sloping roof. Some western Subarctic Indians constructed double lean-tos with two roofs meeting in a peak.

Leister A three-pronged harpoon used for fishing by Arctic peoples.

Lifeways Cultural traits or customs of a people.

Lithic Indians See Paleo-Indians.

Longhouse A long dwelling, with a pointed or rounded roof and doors at both ends, made with a pole frame and usually covered with elm bark. The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) lived in longhouses, several families to each one.

Loom A device used to weave thread or yarn to make cloth.

Indian corn.

Mammoth A large extinct mammal, similar to the elephant, once common in North America and hunted by Prehistoric Indians. The wooly mammoth was one variety. (See also mastodon.)

Manitou A supernatural being or force of nature in the religion of Algonquians. Known by other names in other Indian religions. Sometimes translated as “Great Spirit.” (See also Orenda and Wakenda.)

Mano and metate A set of millstones, with an upper and lower part, used to grind corn and other grains. (See also mortar and pestle.)

Mastodon A large extinct mammal, similar to an elephant. (See also mammoth.)

Matrilineal A term used to describe a social organization in which descent is traced through the female members, as is ownership of property. (See also patrilineal.)

Medicine bundle A collection of various materials, often wrapped in leather or cloth, to which spiritual power and tribal meaning are assigned.

Medicine man See shaman.

Mesa A tableland, or flat-topped elevation with steep sides. Found in the American Southwest.

Mesoamerica The name of a culture area that is now part of Mexico and Central America. Some Indians in this part of the Americas lived in cities and had highly organized societies.

Mesquite A spiny tree or shrub with sugar-rich pods, growing in the American Southwest.

Metis Literally, French for “mixed-blood.” Many Canadian fur traders, especially French Canadian but also Scottish and Irish, lived among and intermarried with the Indians. They came to constitute a special class of people, like an Indian tribe but with a combined Indian-white culture. The word is capitalized when it identifies this special group. (See also voyageur.)

Midewiwin A secret society whose members supposedly have a link to the spirit world and strive to assure the well-being of the tribe. Typical of western Great Lakes tribes. Also called the “Grand Medicine Society.”

Military society See secret society.

Mission Indians A phrase used to denote those Indians who gave up, or were forced to give up, their tribal way of life and came to live at missions. Used especially in reference to California Indians brought under the influence of Spanish missionaries.

Moccasin A soft leather shoe. Originally an Algon-quian word, but now used in reference to footware of many different Indian peoples.

Mocuck A birch-bark container for holding sugar and other food, sometimes with a rawhide handle and carved design. Typical of the Chippewa (Ojibway).

Moiety A social group within a tribe. The word means “half.” Some tribes with clans divided their clans into halves. The two halves were responsible for different chores and played against each other in games. (See also clan.)

Mortar and pestle A two-part milling tool, with a bowl-shaped stone, plus a club-shaped stone (or wooden bowl and wooden club), used for pulverizing plant or animal matter. (See also mano and metate.)

Mosaic A picture or design made from small, colorful pieces of stone, shell, or other material cemented together to form a design.

Mound A large earthwork made by ancient Indians for burials, to represent animals, or to contain or support temples or houses. The Native Americans who made these earthworks are known as Mound Builders.

Mukluk A soft and supple Inuit boot, usually made from sealskin.

Nation Originally a term applied by the French to tribes in Quebec. Nation was later applied by English-speaking peoples to large Indian confederacies, especially in the Southeast. It became the official name for the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole tribal entities in the Indian Territory after their relocation in the 1830s. Nation is often used synonymously with tribe; it is favored by some Native Americans because the term implies the concept of sovereignty. In Canada, the phrase First Nations now is applied to Indian tribes.

Nomadic A way of life in which people frequently moved from one location to another in search of food. “Seminomadic” people had permanent villages, but left them in certain seasons to hunt, fish, or gather wild plant foods. (See also hunting-gathering.)

Obsidian Volcanic glass that is generally black and was prized by Indians because it could be readily flaked to a sharp point or edge. (See also flaking.)

Orenda The supernatural force or “Great Spirit” in the religion of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee). (See also Manitou and Wakanda.)

Paddling A technique of decorating pottery by pressing a flat or curved wood paddle against the wet clay before firing. The paddle had a design carved in it or cords wrapped around it.

Paleo-Indians The Paleolithic (Stone Age), prehistoric ancestors of modern Indians. The Paleo-Indians were known as makers of stone tools and hunters of now-extinct big game. Also called “Lithic Indians.”

Paleontology The study of ancient life-forms and fossil remains.

Palisade A fence, usually made of upright logs and placed around a village, for purposes of defense. Also called a stockade.

Pan-Indian Having to do with all Indians and not just isolated tribes. Used in reference to cultural activities, common goals, and organizations relevant to all Indian peoples.

Papoose The Algonquian word for “baby,” applied to infants of other Indians as well.

Parfleche A storage bag used to hold clothing, ceremonial objects, or meat and made from rawhide with the hair removed.

Parka A hooded outer garment, made by the Inuit and Aleut from the skin of mammals or birds. The length varies from people to people, from the hips to below the knees. Women’s parkas are cut larger for carrying infants; they also are longer in back for insulation when sitting. Sometimes mittens are attached.

Patrilineal A type of social organization in which descent and property are passed along through the male line. (See also matrilineal.)

Peace pipe See sacred pipe.

Pemmican A concentrated food made by pounding together meat, fat, and berries and used especially on the trail.

Percussion-flaking See flaking.

Permafrost Permanently frozen subsoil, typical of the Arctic tundra. (See also tundra.)

Peyote A type of cactus eaten by some Indian peoples for its trancelike effect. Considered a sacrament by the Native American Church.

Pictograph A picture or sign representing a word or idea (as opposed to a sound, as in alphabet-writing or in syllabaries). When present, the colors in pic-tographs have symbolic meaning as well. The term ideograph (or ideogram) is used synonymously with pictograph. The terms picture writing, hieroglyphics, and glyph writing are used interchangeably with pictography. A petroglyph is a pictograph on rock.

Pinon A small pine tree producing edible nuts, growing in the American West and Southwest.

Pipestone A type of clay, usually red in color, used to make pipes. Also called catlinite, after the frontier painter George Catlin, who wrote about the Pipestone Quarry in Minnesota.

Pithouse A dwelling, placed over a hole, usually made with a log frame and walls and roof of saplings, reeds, and mud.

Plaiting A technique used in weaving baskets and cloth in which two different elements cross each other to create a checkerboard effect.

Plank house A dwelling made of hand-split planks over a log frame. Northwest Coast Indians built plank houses.

Point A stone spearhead or arrowhead.

Potlatch A tribal ceremony of feasting, speechmaking, and dancing during which possessions are given away to demonstrate wealth and rank. Typical of Northwest Coast Indians.

Potsherd (potshard, shard, sherd) A fragment of broken pottery. Potsherds, the most durable of archaeological evidence, are valuable in dating excavation sites.

Powwow A council or festival among Indians for socializing, trading, and dancing. Originally an Algonquian word.

Pre-Columbian The period of history in the Americas before Christopher Columbus’s voyage of exploration.

Prehistory A general term applied to the cultural stage of a people before written records.

Presidio A Spanish “fort,” typically built near missions.

Pressure-flaking See flaking.

Promyshlenniki The Russian term for fur traders.

Pueblo Originally, the Spanish word for an Indian village. Used for a particular type of architecture common among Southwest Indians—apartment-like, up to five stories high, interconnected by ladders, made from stone or adobe bricks. Also, with a capital P) when used in reference to the people living in pueblos.

Pyramid A massive stone monument with a rectangular base and four sides extending upward to a point. Found in Mesoamerica, where they were used to support temples.

Rancheria A small reservation, used in reference to Native American holdings in the state of California. The Spanish originally applied the term to Indian villages that were not under the missions’ influence or control.

Quarry site A location where Indians went for workable stone such as flint and made stone tools. (See also flaking.)

Quillwork Decorative work on clothing, bags, and other items, made from porcupine quills dyed with vegetable colors. (See also beadwork.)

Radiocarbon dating A technique for dating ancient materials by measuring the amount of carbon 14 (a radioactive isotope) present. Also called “carbon-14 dating.”

Relocation A term used to describe the forced removal of a tribe from one location to another. A common U. S. governmental practice in the 1800s. From the early 1950s into the 1960s, the federal government adopted a modern relocation policy, pressuring Indians to move from reservations to urban areas. (See also Removal.)

Removal A term used to describe a 19th-century policy of the U. S. federal government in which eastern tribes were taken from their ancestral homelands and forced to live elsewhere, especially west of the Mississippi River in the Indian Territory. (See also Indian Territory and Relocation.)

Repatriation The reacquisition by a tribe of human remains or sacred objects from the government, museums, or private owners, as defined in the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990.

Reservation A tract of land set aside historically by the federal government or state governments for Indians. Reservations originally served as a kind of prison for Indians, who were not permitted to leave them. Nowadays, reservations are tribally held lands, protected by the government, where Indians are free to come and go as they choose. In Canada, the official term is reserve.

Reserve The Canadian equivalent of a reservation. In Canada, different bands typically have more than one reserve tract of land.

Restoration A term used to describe cultural renewal, or a return to traditional ways and values. Often appearing as “tribal restoration,” indicating a rediscovery of tribal identity and the establishment of tribal economic goals. Tribal restoration became widespread in the 1930s, when the U. S. federal government under President Roosevelt launched a “New Deal” for Indians.

Ribbonwork A kind of patchwork or applique in which ribbons or cutout designs of silk are sewn in strips on garments. Typical of the Seminole. (See also applique.)

Roach A construction of animal hair or fur worn on the top of the head as a hairstyle. Also, the feather-work part of a headdress. “Roach spreaders,” usually carved of antler, held the featherwork erect.

Saber-toothed tiger A now-extinct mammal of the cat family with long upper teeth, hunted by early Indians.

Sachem The chief of a tribe. Originally an Algonquian word, but also used in reference to Iroquois (Haun-denosaunee) chiefs. A “grand sachem” is the leader of a confederacy of tribes. (See also sagamore.)

Sacred pipe A pipe with a special meaning for a tribe; used in ceremonies. Usually with an intricately carved pipestone bowl and a long wooden stem and decorated with quills, beads, or feathers. Also called calumet or peace pipe.

Sacred Shield The paintings on shields had religious meanings to the Indians, supposedly serving as a link to the spiritual world and offering magical protection to the bearers.

Sagamore A subordinate chief of the Algonquian Indians, below a sachem in rank. (See also sachem.)

Saguaro A giant cactus, growing in the American Southwest. Used by the Akimel O’odham (Pima) and Tohono O’odham (Papago) for its edible fruit.

Sandpainting A design made by trickling colored sand onto plain sand for ceremonial purposes. A ritualistic art practiced by the Navajo.

Scalplock A lock of hair on an otherwise shaved head.

Secret society A sodality, or club, with exclusive membership, a common purpose, and particular rituals. Some tribes have many different societies. There are many variations on this term, including ceremonial society, religious society, and shamans’ society. One also sees the term dance society, since secret societies typically have special dances. A medicine society involves healing rituals. A military society, soldier society, or warrior society is organized around rituals of war. Some Native American sodalities are open to all tribal members.

Sedentary A way of life in which people live in permanent villages. Most sedentary tribes practiced agriculture.

Seine A large net for fishing that hangs vertically in the water, with floats on top and weights on the bottom.

Self-Determination A tribal and governmental policy calling for Indian self-government and cultural renewal.

Seminomadic See nomadic.

Shaman A member of a tribe who keeps tribal lore and rituals and interprets and attempts to control the supernatural. The shaman applies his or her powers to evoke visions, to cure the sick, and to bring success in food gathering and warfare. Also called medicine man.

Sign language A method of intertribal communication using hand signs. Typical of Plains Indians.

Sipapu A small round, shallow hole in the floor of early pithouses and later kivas, located between the firepit and the wall. In Pueblo Indian tradition, the opening symbolizes the center of the universe, leading to and from the Spirit World, through which the first humans emerged, deceased people pass, and legendary beings come and go.

Slash-and-burn agriculture A type of farming in which the ground is cleared by cutting down and then burning trees and undergrowth. The resulting ashes help enrich the soil. Common in Mesoamerica.

Sled A vehicle used for carrying people and possessions over snow and ice. A sled has runners and a raised platform. (See also toboggan.)

Slip A thin mixture of fine clay and water applied to the surface of pottery before firing.

Snare A device to trap game, mostly birds and small mammals, usually with a rope or leather noose.

Snow pit A hole in the snow in which a hunter can hide to surprise game.

Snowshoe A device for walking on top of deep snow, made from a racket-shaped wooden frame with leather webbing, and with thongs to attach it to the foot.

Soapstone A kind of stone with a soapy texture; a variety of talc; used to make pots and sculptures. Also called steatite.

Sodality A club, often with closed membership and secret rites.

Soldier society See secret society.

Soul-catcher A ceremonial object used by a shaman to hold the patient’s soul in curing ceremonies.

Sovereignty A term applied to Native American tribal self-determination, that is, control of a people over their own affairs without external interference. Many Indian tribes have made claims as sovereign nations, on an equal footing with other nations, but they in effect have “limited sovereignty.” (See also self-determination.)

Staple A basic food essential to survival. Corn, buffalo meat, deer meat, salmon, and acorns are examples of dietary staples for various Indian peoples.

Steatite See soapstone.

Stone-boiling A method of cooking in which preheated stones are placed inside containers of water.

Sun Dance The most famous of all the Indian ceremonies, an annual renewal rite, taking place in the summer and centered around the Sun. There were many rituals in the Sun Dance, the most dramatic of which involved self-torture by warriors. Typical of most Plains tribes.

Sweathouse A structure used for sweating, a ritual purification through exposure to heat. Heat could be generated with a fire in an open fire pit or by pouring water onto hot stones and making steam. Sweathouses were generally dome-shaped. Large sweathouses are sometimes called sweatlodges and often doubled as clubhouses.

Syllabary A list of language symbols, each one representing a syllable. Sequoyah, a Cherokee, invented a syllabary for his people so that their language could be written.

Taiga The evergreen forests and swamplands of the subarctic region to the south of the treeless tundra.

Temple A shrine or place of worship.

Termination A policy of the federal government practiced in the 1950s that sought to end the special protective relationship between the government and Indian tribes.

Tipi (tepee) A conical tent with a pole frame and usually covered with buffalo hides. Typical of the Plains Indians.

Tiswin (tesguino, tulipai) A beer made from corn. Corn stalks or green corn sprouts were pressed for the juices, which then were heated. Typical of the Apache.

Toboggan A vehicle for transporting people or possessions over snow or ice. Toboggans, unlike sleds, have no runners; their platforms sit directly on the snow. (See also sled.)

Tomahawk A type of warclub. Tomahawk is an Algon-quian word. Unlike the more general word warclub, often applied to stone or wooden clubs, the term tomahawk is generally used to describe an axlike weapon with a metal head (which sometimes doubled as a pipe). Tomahawks were often made by Europeans for trade with Indians.

Totem An animal or plant, or some other natural object or phenomenon, serving as the symbol or emblem of a family or clan. (See also clan.)

Totem pole A post carved and painted with a series of figures and symbols, of special meaning with regard to tribal legends and history. Typical of Northwest Coast Indians.

Travois A device used for transporting people and possessions behind dogs (dog travois) or horses (horse travois). It consists of a wooden frame shaped like a V, with the closed end over the animal’s shoulders, and the open end dragging on the ground, with a plank or webbing in the middle.

Treaty A formal agreement, pact, or contract negotiated between the federal government (or state government, or territorial government) and Indian tribes.

Tribal government The leadership of a tribe, sometimes hereditary and sometimes elected. May consist of a chief and/or tribal council.

Tribal headquarters The location where a tribal government meets, or simply the post office address of a tribe. It is a modern term commonly appearing with reservation names.

Tribe A general term applied to a number of different kinds of Indian social organization. Tribes usually have descent, territory, culture, and history in common and are made up of a number of bands or villages. (See also band.)

Tribelet A grouping of Indians with a main, permanent village and a number of temporary satellite villages. Applied to California Indians.

Trickster A name for a recurring culture hero among various tribes, who symbolizes the unpredictable, absurd, and humorous nature of reality and fate. A Trickster figure represents both the sacred and the profane; he is a creator and a destroyer. Trickster is commonly depicted as a coyote or a magpie.

Trust lands Indian lands that are protected by the U. S. federal government and state governments but that are not true reservations. Applied especially to the allotted lands of Oklahoma tribes. (See also Allotment and reservation.)

Tule A bulrush or reed growing in California, the Southwest, and Mexico and used to make rafts, sandals, mats, and other items.

Tumpline A piece of animal skin or cloth slung across the forehead or chest to support a load on the back. From an Algonquian word.

Tundra The treeless area of the Arctic, with a permanently frozen subsoil and low-growing vegetation, such as moss and lichens. (See also permafrost.)

Umiak A large, open, flat-bottomed boat made by stretching hide (usually walrus hide) over a wooden frame. Typical of the Inuit.

Vision Quest Seeking visions or dreams through selfdeprivation, exposure to the elements, or hallucinogenic drugs, usually for a rite of passage, such as from childhood to adulthood. Typical of Plains Indians.

Voyageur Literally, French for “traveler.” A fur trader who traveled the rivers and backwoods for the large fur companies, such as the North West Company and Hudson’s Bay Company. Many of the voyageurs were of mixed descent, especially French Canadian and Cree. (See also coureur de bois and Metis.)

Wakanda The supernatural force or Great Spirit in the religion of the Sioux. Also spelled “Wakenda” and “Wakonda.” (See also Manitou and Orenda.)

Wampum An Algonquian word, originally referring to strings or belts of small beads made from shells, especially purple and white quahog clam shells. Indians used “wampum belts” as tribal records and to communicate messages of peace or war to other tribes. After Europeans came to the Americas, the Indians began making wampum out of glass beads. The Europeans also made wampum for trade with the Indians. Wampum then became a form of money.

Warbonnet A headdress with different feathers representing feats in battle. Typical of Plains Indians.

Warrior society See military society.

Wattle and daub A type of construction using a pole framework intertwined with branches and vines and covered with mud and plaster. Found especially in the Southeast.

Weir A fenced-in enclosure placed in water for trapping or keeping fish.

Wickiup A conical or domed dwelling with a pole frame covered with brush, grass, or reeds. Typical of the Apache.

Wigwam A domed or conical dwelling with a pole frame overlaid with bark, animal skin, or woven mats. Typical of Algonquian tribes.

Wild rice A tall plant of the grass family, with an edible grain (not a true rice), growing especially along the western Great Lakes and gathered by Algon-quian peoples.