Agriculture

Grain was by far the most crucial agricultural commodity of the Renaissance, especially wheat and rice. Census takers did not count the number of people in a household, but rather the number of grain consumers (meaning that small children usually were not included). The main goal of agronomy was to learn how to improve the supply of grain, of all types. Renaissance agronomy began with the study of classical texts on the subject, and, of course, the ancient Roman sources pertained to the Mediterranean basin. In addition, because of the mild climate of most of western Europe, successful experiments in one region could help improve agricultural production in other areas. The two most significant changes were the elimination of fallowing (in which fields were left unused for a season or more) and cross plowing. With previously fallowed fields kept in production, three crops per year could be produced in warmer regions. An increase in the use of manure helped accomplish this innovation. Cross plowing, as opposed to plowing of parallel lines in ridges, produced perpendicular lines, which opened more of the earth to receive seeds. The forage crops grown during the crop rotation in this system provided more fodder, which could feed more animals during the winter. A greater supply of manure from the additional animals perpetuated this cycle of abundance. The chief new forage crop was alfalfa (an Arabic word), which supplied nitrogen, supplemented by clover. Although lost to most of Europe after antiquity, alfalfa was still grown in the Muslim dominions of Spain. Known as Spanish grass in Italy during the 16th century, alfalfa became a mainstay in the diet of farm animals.

Improved irrigation systems as well as new hydraulic machinery that could drain wet areas for cultivation made untended land available for Renaissance agriculture. In his Obra de agricultura (Book of agriculture, 1513), the horticulturist Gabriel Alonso de Herrera (born c. 1470) insisted that regular supplies of water were more important than fertilizer. Working in Granada, Herrera observed firsthand the sophisticated Muslim irrigation systems of southern Spain. Other improvements to European Farming included new cultivators created in 16th-century botanical gardens and new plants from the Americas. Maize was grown in Spain before 1500, and western Europe was producing sweet potatoes during the 16th century. The white potato, however, was not consumed as food. Along with tobacco, it was grown for medicinal purposes. The tomato, considered inedible at this time, was cultivated as an ornamental plant.

The general statements in this section should be supplemented in further study by more detailed analysis of individual regions where the local terrain dictated agricultural techniques. The Italian Peninsula, for example, had (and has) three large agricultural regions, Lombardy in the north, Tuscany in the center, and the south. Lombardy is relatively flat with heavy soil, so fields could easily be irrigated and diverse crops grown for market. Dairy farming thrived, and cheeses from the region around Parma were famous during the 15th century. In Tuscany, with its hills, thinner soil, and sparse rainfall, grapes and olives did well. Peasants grew food for their own consumption, rotating three crops per year. Although sheep were cultivated there, the wool was not valued very highly. Most of the southern zone, with its poor soil, was divided into large estates, many of which produced lemons and oranges. The land was also used for grazing. Farms that did grow food products did so with only a two-crop rotation. The entire peninsula was beginning to feel the effects of deforestation by the 16th century as massive numbers of trees were removed for shipbuilding and fuel.

During this period the state became much more interested in measuring and managing rural land use, and regional officials gathered information on agricultural production. Cities were naturally linked with their rural neighbors because much of their food supply was local. Farms and larger estates also provided another important raw material to urban areas, namely, peasants, who did the menial tasks that kept roads passable, raw goods delivered, workshops clean, and so on. The rate of mortality among the lower classes in cities was very high: Only about half of these individuals lived past the age of 20. Living conditions of the urban poor were appalling by modern standards; urban people were continuously exposed to the filth of daily life (see chapter 12).