The New York World’s Fair of 1939-40 was the largest and most expensive world’s fair ever to that point, and the most important of the world’s fairs of the 1930s. Although attendance fell short of hopes, the fair reflected important aspects of American culture at the juncture of the Great Depression and World War II.
Costing more than $150 million and covering more than 1,200 acres in the borough of Queens, the New York World’s Fair was immense. Special highways, bridges, and subway stations were built to accommodate traffic to the fair, and 300 buildings were constructed on the fairgrounds. Two lakes were created, 10,000 trees were planted, and 25 miles of road were paved. Fifty-nine foreign nations and 33 U. S. states and territories participated. In addition, the fair corporation commissioned the creation of more than 100 murals and more than 60 sculptures.
The purported reason for the fair was the celebration of the 150th anniversary of George Washington’s inaugural address. In reality, the fair of 1939 touched only lightly on historical themes. Far more obvious was the fair’s emphasis on the future. The official guide book claimed that visitors would gain a “new and clearer view of today in preparation for tomorrow,” and that the exhibits would “show the way toward the improvement of all the factors contributing to human welfare.” This was reflected in the fair’s official theme—“the World of Tomorrow.”
This futuristic focus was also reflected in the architecture and layout of the fair. All of the physical elements were coordinated to impart a feeling of modernity and uniformity. Clean lines and bold shapes dominated in the buildings. The streets were arranged in an orderly manner, and even the color scheme was carefully planned. The only completely white buildings were the Perisphere and the Trylon, respectively a globe 200 feet in diameter and a 600-foot-tall three-sided obelisk that stood together at the center of the fair. The main thoroughfare, at one end of which these structures stood, also featured an 85-foot statue of Washington and an elaborate fountain called the Lagoon of Nations.
Many of the fair’s exhibits shared this futuristic motif. Inside the Perisphere, revolving balconies afforded an aerial view of the model metropolis of the future, called Democracity. Similarly, the fair’s most popular exhibit, General Motors’s “Highways and Horizons,” allowed visitors to travel through the America of 1960. Known as the Futurama, this exhibit showcased a time when the problems of society had been solved by new technologies, including superhighways, urban planning, and scientific agriculture. Other futuristic attractions included an electrified farm and the Town of Tomorrow, which featured single-family homes built with innovative materials and equipped with novel appliances. In the RCA building, crowds gathered around a seven-inch television screen to see the future of mass media. Westinghouse, Ford, Kodak, Nabisco, American Telephone & Telegraph, Heinz, Bethlehem Steel, and a host of other corporations also exhibited products at the fair.
Shown here are the futuristic symbols of "the World of Tomorrow," the 600-foot-tall needlelike Trylon and the Perisphere, a globe nearly 200 feet in diameter. (Hulton/Archive)
In addition to the attractions offering education and enlightenment, the fair also provided pure entertainment. The amusement area of the fair contained elaborate attractions such as Jungleland, Old New York, Merrie England, and Children’s World, as well as the more typical thrill rides, carnival games, and “girlie shows.” Numerous parades and nightly fireworks shows were staged. Arenas housed Broadway plays, MOVIES, and fashion shows. The Aquacade, which featured synchronized swimming productions, was one of the fair’s most popular attractions.
Despite the time and effort that went into creating the fair, attendance failed to meet expectations. Instead of the projected 40 million to 50 million, only 25 million people visited the fair in its 1939 season, and the fair corporation lost money. As a result, some adjustments were planned for 1940. The admission price was dropped from 750 to 500. The official theme of the fair was also changed, evidently in response to increased qualms over the future and concern about the outbreak of World War II. Rather than “the World of Tomorrow,” the planners now promised fairgo-ers refuge in patriotic celebrations of America’s “Peace and Freedom.” In addition, advertisements emphasized the fun and escapism offered at the fair. While the fair corporation made money in 1940, turnout remained low, with only 18 million attending.
Although the New York World’s Fair of 1939-40 was an economic failure, it was, and remains, an important icon of mid-20th-century America. The fair reflected a faith in TECHNOLOGY as a means of progress—a theme which, though tempered in later decades, continues to be an enduring element of American culture. Likewise, the fair’s enthusiasm for new gadgets and material comforts reflected the emergence of the consumer culture, a ubiquitous, if often criticized, characteristic of modern American life. More poignantly, perhaps, the fair symbolized for many the possibility of hope in the midst of depression and international conflict.
See also POPULAR CULTURE.
Further reading: Helen A. Harrison, ed., Dawn of a New Day: The New York World’s Fair, 1939-40 (New York: Queens Museum, 1980); Larry Zim, et al., The World of Tomorrow: The 1939 New York World's Fair (New York: Harper & Row, 1988).
—Pamela J. Lauer
Nimitz, Chester W. (1885-1966) commander in chief, U. S. Pacific Fleet in World War II Admiral Chester William Nimitz served as the commander in chief of all United States land, sea, and air forces in the Pacific Ocean Areas during WORLD War II.
Nimitz was born in Fredricksburg, Texas, on February 24, 1885. He attended the U. S. Naval Academy and graduated in 1905. He was a submariner during the earliest days of the “silent service,” and held a variety of assignments prior to World War I, including tours on the China station and as commander of the Atlantic Submarine Flotilla. In 1913 he traveled to Germany and Belgium to study advances in diesel engines; on his return to the United States, he supervised the construction of the first diesel ships built for the U. S. Navy, then undergoing the transition from coal to oil power.
In 1916, Nimitz was promoted to the rank of lieutenant commander. During World War I, he served as chief of staff to the commander of the submarine division, Atlantic Fleet. Various assignments followed after the war, including attendance at the U. S. Naval War College (1922-23), and staff assignments with the commander in chief of the Battle Fleet and the commander in chief of the U. S. Fleet. After attending the University of California (1926-29), Nimitz commanded Submarine Division 20 (1929-31) and the USS Augusta (1933-35), and served as assistant chief of the Bureau of Navigation (1935-38). He was promoted to rear admiral in 1938, and for a year commanded a cruiser division before taking command of a battleship division. In
June 1939 he was made chief of the Bureau of Navigation, where he remained until the Japanese attack on PEARL Harbor in December 1941.
A senior commander with vast experience (although he never served aboard a ship in combat), extraordinary organizational and leadership talents, and a deliberate, low-key, but confident demeanor, Nimitz was named commander in chief of the U. S. Pacific Fleet in March 1942, with the rank of admiral. Soon thereafter, Nimitz was named commander of all land, sea, and air forces in the Pacific Ocean Areas. This included the North and Central Pacific Ocean Areas under his direct command, and supervision of the South Pacific Ocean Area, first commanded by Admiral Robert L. Ghormley and later Admiral William F. Halsey. As commander in chief of the Pacific Ocean Areas, Nimitz was responsible for the buildup, coordination, and overall direction of the WORLD War II Pacific theater campaign against Imperial Japan in cooperation with U. S. Army general Douglas A. MacArthur, commander of the Southwest Pacific Area. In addition, Nimitz commanded his own U. S. Navy and U. S. Marines subordinates including Admirals Halsey, Marc A. Mitscher, Raymond A. Spruance, Thomas C. Kincaid, John S. McCain, Sr., and Richard K. Turner.
Following a massive two-year buildup of naval, air, and land forces in Hawaii, Nimitz directed the sea battles and island-hopping AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE assaults across the Central Pacific toward the Japanese home islands. These included landings in the Gilbert Islands (November 1943), the Marshall Islands (January-February 1944), the Mariana ISLANDS (June-July 1944), the Palaus (September 1944), the PHILIPPINES (October 1944), IwO JiMA (February 1945), and Okinawa (April 1945). Nimitz also served as overall commander during the time his subordinates fought the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the Battle of Midway (June 1942), the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 1944), and the Battle for Leyte Gulf (October 1944).
In December 1944, Nimitz was promoted to the newly created rank of admiral of the fleet, the naval equivalent to the U. S. Army five-star general-of-the-army rank. On September 2, 1945, the formal surrender of Japan was received aboard the battleship USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay, then serving as Nimitz’s flagship.
From December 1945 until his retirement from the U. S. Navy in December 1947, Nimitz served as chief of naval operations and then as special assistant to the secretary of the navy. In 1949 he was chosen to supervise the United Nations plebiscite in Kashmir. He died on February 20, 1966.
Further reading: E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1976).
—Clayton D. Laurie
World History
