Hierarchy

The pope or any other central authority was superfluous in Lutheran doctrine because ministers were to be elected by their congregation or by local Lutheran secular leaders. Zwingli followed this model, with an additional emphasis of the pastor as a shepherd caring for his flock. He also envisioned more of a separation between the minister, who was divinely inspired, and the congregation, who received his message. By the end of the 16th century, however, a Lutheran hierarchy, consisting of ministers and their superintendents, both answering to an administrative body, was established. Calvinism had several offices for the clergy: The minister, or pastor, taught the Scripture; the deacon was responsible for administering to the poor; and the presbyter, or elder of the church, worked with the pastor when members of the congregation needed to be disciplined. Calvin based his organization of these offices on examples from the New Testament. Unlike Protestant sects on the Continent, the congregation of the Anglican Church did not elect its priests. The English monarch appointed bishops, and bishops appointed all members of the clergy without consulting the congregation or secular officials. The monarch was the head of the church but was not a priest and could not consecrate bishops.

Early Lutheran churches were plainer than Catholic churches, but they included an altar for the Eucharist. The altar often was a table with a cloth placed over it, with a paten and chalice for the Communion service. Instead of an elaborately painted altarpiece, many Lutheran churches had a simple carved crucifix. Holy Communion was truly a communal experience, as every member of the congregation was permitted to partake of both the bread and the wine. Participants were also encouraged to join in the singing of hymns.