Chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, the President’s Commission on the Status of Women (PCSW) brought visibility and legitimacy to concerns of women’s status and rights as well as raising the consciousness of women.
The PCSW began as a way for President John F. Kennedy to demonstrate his concern for women’s problems and to dampen the persistent demands for an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Esther Peterson, a labor lobbyist whom Kennedy had named director of the Women’s Bureau, used her clout with the president to commit him to establish a federal commission on the status of women. Peterson was interested in promoting policy initiatives for working women and had long opposed an ERA. At her behest, a small committee composed of women with sympathies to organized labor drafted a proposal for a commission on the status of women. Worried about the economic ramifications of women remaining an underutilized resource, Kennedy established the PCSW by executive order on December 14, 1961. The commission was composed of 11 men and 15 women, including cabinet officers, members of Congress, and leaders in LABOR, RELIGION, EDUCATION, and other professions. It did not reflect geographical diversity nor did it contain a representative from a Spanish-speaking group. The PCSW contained seven subcommittees with more than 100 people, mostly women, involved in its work. The subcommittees drew people from interest groups and think tanks largely representing urban-industrial coalitions.
The PCSW sought to design proposals that would combat sex discrimination in government and private employment and to recommend services that would enable women to contribute economically to society. It was directed to review progress and make recommendations in six areas: employment policies and practices; federal social insurance and tax laws; federal and state labor laws, differences in legal treatment of men and women; new and expanded services that might be required for women as wives, mothers, and workers; and the employment policies and practices of the U. S. government. To explore these areas in depth, the PCSW established committees on civil and political rights, education, federal employment, private employment, home and community, protective labor legislation, and social insurance and taxes.
On October 11, 1963, the PCSW issued its report, American Women, to Kennedy. The authors noted that many mothers, particularly African-American ones, had to work and that most women who worked were married. The report pointed out that women’s earnings were less than men’s and that women in federal service occupied the lower grades. Seeing women primarily as wives and mothers rather than wage earners, the PCSW declared that the adoption of its proposals would directly benefit men as well in the public sphere and their primary responsibilities for the home and family, it did recommend significant changes in government policies and employment and educational practices. In many instances, the commission disagreed with the proposals of a committee. One of the major clashes within the PCSW occurred over regulations dealing with the hours that women could work, with the commission refusing to endorse maximum-hours legislation.
Opponents of the Equal Rights Amendment far outnumbered supporters on the commission but they agreed on a compromise that left open the possibility for future consideration of an amendment. The commission supported an alternative route to equality for women, a proposal developed by Yale Law School professor PAULI Murray, who had a long history of civil rights activism. Murray concluded that the Supreme Court would interpret the Fourteenth Amendment as prohibiting unreasonable discrimination based on sex as well as race. The PCSW urged the filing of suits against discriminatory laws in an effort to obtain a Supreme Court ruling that would establish women’s right to equal treatment
The PCSW achieved a number of successes. When the Civil Service Commission accepted its recommendation to end the practice of stipulating the sex of applicants, the placement of larger numbers of women became a possibility overnight. State affiliates of the President’s Commission on the Status of Women also formed within a few years in 49 states, with Texas as the lone holdout. Composed primarily of women, these commissions extended the documentation of women’s unequal status begun by the PCSW. In 1964, members of state commissions began to meet at annual conferences, thereby forming a national network of individuals with information about and heightened awareness of sex discrimination.
The PCSW publicized women’s second-class status and tried to position the government behind securing gender equality. By increasing awareness of sex discrimination and establishing mechanisms for action, the PCSW contributed directly to the rise of the women’s movement.
Further reading: William H. Chafe, The Paradox of Change: American Women in the 20th Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Margaret Mead and Frances Balgley Kaplan, eds., American Women (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1965).
—Caryn Neumann
As women.
American Women avoided an analysis of the ideological roots of women’s oppression, focusing instead on specific policy recommendations designed to create opportunities for working women. Although the PCSW ignored the contradiction between greater opportunities for women
Presley, Elvis (1935-1977) singer, actor Combining elements of African-American rhythm and blues, gospel, and country MUSIC, Elvis Presley was one of the greatest pioneers of ROCK AND ROLL, earning him the nickname “The King.”
Elvis Aaron Presley was born in Tupelo, Mississippi, on January 8, 1935. The son of Vernon and Gladys Presley, Elvis grew up in poverty. Vernon Presley was a common laborer, who held jobs ranging from sharecropping to driving trucks. While Vernon appeared shiftless, Gladys Presley was the cornerstone of the family. She wished for a better life for Elvis, instilling a strong work ethic in him, in the hopes that one day he would take a better-paying skilled job.
Elvis’s first exposure to music came from the church. A member of the Pentecostal Church in Tupelo, Elvis enjoyed gospel music from an early age. The music had a profound effect on Elvis, who recalled, “When I was four or five, all I looked forward to was Sundays, when we would all go to church. This was the only singing training I ever had.” At the age of 11, Elvis received a guitar for his birthday, and he began to learn a few chords. During this period, he listened to black gospel and rhythm and blues at gospel shows and on the radio.
While working as a truck driver in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1954, Presley visited Sam Phillips’s Memphis Recording Service. Claiming that he wanted to make a record for his mother’s birthday, Presley met Sam Phillips himself. Phillips enjoyed the combination of musical styles that Elvis brought forth in his music, and after hearing him sing a rendition of “That’s Allright Mama,” Phillips signed Presley to a contract with Sun Records. Presley’s stay with Sun was a short one, but the two years with the company were considered some of his most creative. With tracks such as “Blue Moon” (1954), “Baby, Let’s Play House” (1955), and “Mystery Train” (1955), Elvis expanded creatively by mixing different elements of music. In 1956, he signed with RCA Victor Records. Some of Presley’s most memorable works appeared during his first year with RCA and include hits like “Blue Suede Shoes,” “Hound Dog,” and “Heartbreak Hotel.”
During a 1956 performance of “Hound Dog” on The Milton Berle Show, Elvis challenged America’s views on sexuality. Gyrating and thrusting his hips, Presley symbolized raw sexuality never before seen on national TELEVISION. An outcry erupted from around the nation, as many people saw Presley’s escapades as a blatant result of the sexual undertones of rock and roll. This performance earned him the nickname “Elvis the Pelvis.”
In March 1956, Elvis signed with Paramount studios for a three-picture deal. Presley’s first screen appearance in Love Me Tender (1956), however, was anything but memorable. Although his first screen performance was ineffective, he continued to improve as an actor in MOVIES such as Loving You (1957), Jailhouse Rock (1957), and King Creole (1958). His success allowed him to purchase all the things he did not have as a child. In March 1957, Elvis bought Graceland, a 23-room Memphis mansion.
In December 1957, Presley was drafted into the U. S. Army, serving in an armored division in Bad Nauheim, West Germany. His military service appeared to highlight his patriotism and enhance his appeal.
Following Presley’s return to the United States in 1960, he focused mainly upon films, starring in 28 pictures. In addition to his work on screen, Elvis remained active in the studio and on the road. From 1960 through 1976, he recorded such hits as “Are You Lonesome Tonight?” (1960), “Viva Las Vegas” (1963), “Can’t Help Falling in Love” (1968), and “Promised Land” (1973).
Elvis married Priscilla Beaulieu on May 1, 1967. One year later, their daughter Lisa Marie Presley was born. The marriage was short-lived, and in 1973 it ended in divorce. Following the divorce, Elvis gained a good deal of weight and became dependent upon prescription drugs. On August 16, 1977, Presley died of heart failure at the age of 42.
Admiration for Elvis Presley continues to be reflected in Graceland’s overwhelming popularity as a contemporary tourist destination. Opened to the public in 1982, Grace-land became a National Historic Site on March 27, 2006, and is the second most visited private residence in the United States after the White House. As a pilgrimage site for Presley fans, Graceland’s museum houses such notable artifacts as the singer’s numerous gold records, his automobile collection, and his famous Vegas jumpsuits.
The legacy of Elvis Presley remains strong among his fans. Due to his courage in taking risks, rock and roll shifted from the sidelines to the mainstream of American music.
Further reading: Susan M. Doll, Understanding Elvis: Southern Roots vs. Star Image (New York: Garland Publishing, 1998); Dave Marsh, Elvis (New York: Rolling Stone Press, 1982).
—Clayton Douglas
World History
