Navajo

The ancestors of the Navajo and their linguistic relatives, the Apache, appeared in what is now the American Southwest after a long and gradual migration from central Canada. They were probably present in the Southwest by the late 15th century. The Navajo established themselves west of the Rio Grande Valley and began trading the products of their hunting and gathering ECONOMY—principally meat, hides, salt, and alum—for agricultural goods produced by sedentary PuEBLO Indians to their east. The Navajo soon began growing corn themselves, an early step in a process of cultural and economic transformation that would distinguish them from their Apache cousins.

Spanish colonizers settled among the Rio Grande Pueblo in 1598 and apparently came into early conflict with the Navajo. Territorial disputes, the Spanish practice of enslaving “barbarian” Indians, and Navajo raiding of Spanish goods and horses all contributed to a pattern of conflict that characterized the 17th century. Some Navajo seemingly participated in the 1680 PuEBLO Revolt and helped Pueblo resist the Spanish reconquest of the 1690s. When that resistance failed, Navajo welcomed thousands of Pueblo refugees. Conflicts with the Spanish continued until 1716, when both sides became preoccupied with other enemies, principally the Ute and Comanche.

Pueblo refugees inspired profound changes in Navajo life. In the decades following the rebellion Navajo adapted much of the rich ceremonialism of Pueblo tradition to their own religion. Navajo pottery became more sophisticated and distinctive, while weaving constituted an increasingly important component of the economy. Pueblo irrigation techniques helped produce greater harvests, and Navajo families started cultivating Spanish-introduced plants such as cotton and orchard fruits. Most significantly, the Navajo economy began to reorient itself around horses, cattle, sheep, and goatherding.

By the middle of the 18th century, the Navajo people had incorporated major changes into their lives, and their territory was expanding vigorously. They increasingly fought with the western Pueblo of Hopi and Zuni, certain eastern Pueblo, and the Ute. In 1774 nearly 60 years of peace between Navajo and Spaniards ended, and the next century would be one of nearly perpetual conflict over territory, slaving, and raids.

See also Spanish colonies.

Further reading: David M. Brugge, “Navajo Prehistory and History to 1850,” in Alfonzo Ortiz, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 10: Southwest (Washington D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1983); Frank McNitt, Navajo Wars: Military Campaigns, Slave Raids, and Reprisals (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990).

—Brian DeLay