Many state Constitutions were liberalized 1816-1830, gradually eliminating property qualifications, taxpaying for voting, religious qualifications for office, etc. Electors were more and more elected by people, not legislatures. Although the nation's founders believed that "democracy" contained dangerous impulses, by the 1830s the term had become more acceptable and applicable to American institutions. Alexis de Tocqueville noticed the decline of deference to leaders and the elevation of popular sovereignty in America-"self-made" men could now rise in stature: "If there is a country in the world where the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people can be fairly appreciated, where it can be studied in its application to the affairs of society, and where its dangers and its advantages may be judged, that country is assuredly America."45 Each individual was closer to being given an equal start in life, but equality of opportunity did not mean equality of result. The American people were happy to accept a society of winners and losers.
As states eliminated property requirements for manhood suffrage, public involvement in politics swelled. A permanent two-party system became the standard forum for the exchange of political ideas. It became understood that a "loyal opposition" was essential to democratic government. Economic questions (prompted by the Panic of 1819) and the proper role of the federal government in business matters were major concerns that assisted the rise in popular political interest. Workingmen's parties and trade unions emerged as workers became convinced that the government should protect the rights of labor as well as those of the producers. Offices that had been appointive-such as judgeships or the electoral college—were made elective.
Abolitionists sought an end to slavery and supported civil rights for free African Americans and women. The major parties gave little thought to extending rights to anyone other than adult, white males; it was left to other, more radical, parties to argue the cause of African-Americans, women, and working people.
The greatest change took place in the style of politics. Professional politicians emerged, actively seeking votes and acting as servants of the people. Men such as Martin Van Buren in New York extolled the public benefits of a two-party system, and political machines began to develop on the state level. National parties eventually developed—the Democrats and the Whigs, many of whom who later evolved into Republicans. Although political parties often served special economic interests, it should be remembered that American politics always retained a strong republican ideology and that all parties sought to preserve equality of opportunity. The National Republicans and Democrats differed on whether this could be done best with or without active intervention by the national government.
Social equality was the dominant principle of the age. Special privilege and family connections could no longer be counted on to guarantee success. Industrialization, however, perpetuated inequality, not in the traditional sense of birth or privilege, but in terms of wealth and attainment. Despite persistent and growing economic inequality, Americans generally believed they had created an egalitarian society, and in many ways they had. Political equality for white males was a radical achievement, and Americans came to prefer the "selfmade" man to one who had inherited wealth and refinement. The egalitarian spirit carried over into an attack on the licensed professions, and it was believed that any white male should have a chance to practice law or medicine, whether or not he was trained. A number of states, for example, repealed laws that made it illegal to practice law without a license.
World History
