The Netherlands

The provinces of the Netherlands included semiautonomous cities (similar to Italian city-states), provinces under the Holy Roman Empire (notably Holland), and provinces claimed by France. Several of these city-states were wealthy through international trade, which provided economic opportunity and social advancement for members of the middle class. During much of the 15th century, part of the Netherlandish territory was ruled by the dukes of Burgundy. In the northern provinces, the governors selected magistrates for the town council from among the most prosperous citizens. In the south, however, urban constitutions created by the powerful guilds of dyers and weavers allowed for representative government, giving a voice to commoners. Even the most autocratic ducal rulers had to negotiate with representatives of the towns in order to collect the income that the merchant class could

History, Government, and Society

Provide. One method of gaining partial control of a region was to control the bishop, and the dukes of Burgundy occasionally installed one of their sons in that office, for example, in Utrecht. Episcopal government in Netherlandish towns, while tempered by town councils, remained strong through the early 16th century with support from members of the aristocracy. One reason for this was that the names of members of the nobility friendly to the clergy were sometimes entered on rolls listing local tradesmen, giving the aristocracy a voice in town government. Nevertheless, the dukes of Burgundy often convened the Estates General of the Netherlands, whose members—some elected and some appointed—represented the various provinces. As of 1477, the Estates General had the power to convene meetings, approve royal marriages, levy taxes, and declare war. Government was authorized at the grassroots level; delegates returned home to canvass local councils before any major proposal could be ratified. Thus the townspeople of the Netherlands held a significant amount of power. The only centralized secular government was that in the Burgundian domain.

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, born and raised in the Netherlands, spoke the Flemish language and initially had the cooperation of the Estates General. When the town of Ghent revolted, however, in 1540, he dealt harshly with the rebels and the town lost its privileges. The relationship between the Netherlands and Imperial authority increasingly deteriorated during the following decade. When the Netherlands became part of the inheritance of the Spanish king, Philip II, he alienated the Estates General by demanding higher taxes to finance his military campaigns. During the latter 1560s, the Spanish king attempted to force absolutist rule on his Dutch subjects by sending in Spanish troops. In response, William I of Orange (1533-84), governor of the United Provinces, convened the Estates of the provinces of Zeeland and Holland to form a provisional independent government. Although Netherlandish provinces in the south reaffirmed their loyalty to Spain, the seven northern provinces founded a republic that lasted more than two centuries. The heads of state of this new government were members of the house of Orange.