Mining

Mining was a large-scale operation that required managers and workers with specialized experience. Central Europe had several mining centers, for silver,

Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe

Copper, and rock salt. Cornwall in England was known for its tin mines, and coal mining rose to importance in England during the 16th century. By the latter 16th century, the silver and gold mines of South America were sending significant amounts of metal to Spain. Exploitation of slave labor was especially severe in Peru and Mexico, where generations of slaves were worked to death in mining and smelting operations (see pages 218-219). Though men often died while working in mines in both the Old and New Worlds, the job was safer in the Renaissance than it had been previously because of new machinery. Giant water wheels as large as 30 feet in diameter were used to power winches and lift buckets filled with ore. Some of these wheels were not powered by water, but rather by two or more men who ran together inside the wheel (as hamsters run on a wheel in their cage). Mining shafts often were ventilated by mechanized processes, and more efficient designs for hydraulic pumps not only contributed to the safety of mining, but also expedited the digging.

During the course of the Renaissance the extraction of metallic ore was increasingly dependent on machines, such as hammering devices for crushing ore. More individuals had money to invest in mining operations, and more metals and alloys were needed for weaponry and armor for the wars that plagued Europe. This unprecedented combination of economic forces resulted in improvements in technology and specialized labor. Metallurgy became a scientific field, and treatises such as De re metallica (On metallurgy, 1556), by Georg Agricola, illustrated the subject in abundant detail. Manuals explaining how to test ores and minerals were published, contributing to the standardization of processes as well as vocabulary. These treatises also emphasized the role of machines and engineering in commercial production, enhancing the possibility of mechanized processes in other fields.

Investment in mining made the fortunes of several families in northern Europe. Jakob Fugger (1459-1525), for example, lent money to the archduke of the Tyrol in 1487 and received among types of security the controlling interest in the most lucrative silver mine of the Tyrol. Three years later the emperor Maximilian I (1459-1519) became head of the Tyrolean government and borrowed money from the Fuggers for military expenses. As a result, Jakob negotiated even better terms on the income from his silver mine. With the emperor holding a monopoly on the minting of money, the Fugger family earned a concession of 50 percent of the proceeds of each silver coin (mark) produced. This amount was eight florins per coin, which was approximately enough money for a family of four to live modestly for about one month. Because trading in silver was prohibited in Austria and Hungary at this time, Jakob Fugger dominated the silver market. His initial investment of 20,000 ducats lent to the archduke constituted

8.2 Hydraulic pump for mining operations. Woodcut in Georgius Agricola, De re metallica {On metallurgy, 1561). (Photograph courtesy of Sotheby’s Inc., © 2003)

Commerce

The foundation of the Fugger’s multimillion-dollar empire of the 16th century.