Although some colonists objected to the Sugar Act (1764) it was during the Stamp Act (1765) controversy that a pattern of resistance emerged that was repeated, with some variations, in reaction to the Townshend Duties (1767) and the Tea Act (1773). This resistance usually consisted of three parts. First, members of the colonial elite wrote pamphlets and newspaper articles articulating an ideological position opposed to imperial regulation, grounding their arguments on their understanding of the English constitution and the ideal of English liberty. Second, there was some effort at local and colonial organization through committees or congresses. Thus in reaction to the Stamp Act, colonists formed the Sons oe Liberty to guide opposition and there was a Stamp Act Congress (1765) to offer a petition and statement of grievances to the king. Although there were no large intercolonial meetings in response to the Townshend Duties, Sons of Liberty and other committees organized on a local level and corresponded with each other. Local committees took the lead in the opposition to the Tea Act, but after the Coercive Acts (1774), the First Continental Congress met to coordinate activities. In all three cases opposition leaders called for a nonimportation movement to put economic pressure on Great Britain. Third, there were riots in the street demonstrating against the imperial regulations and expressing some lower-class resentment against wealth. The committees, often recruited from the middle of society, sought to guide and limit the extent of this popular disorder. But without the mob in the street, it would have been impossible to sustain the resistance movement and enforce the resolutions passed by the committees and congresses.
Although from the perspective of July 4, 1776, it appears as if the resistance movement led inevitably to independence, it is important to remember that the process was long (over a decade) and never intended to break the colonies away from Great Britain. Resistance began in the name of English rights and was based on traditions inherited from Great Britain: The arguments in the pamphlets and newspaper articles were all based on a reading of English political thinkers, and the traditions of popular disorder—belief that the people had a right to riot to express their grievances in the street—came from Great Britain. Similarly, the imperial crisis did not escalate with each new measure. Resistance was extremely intense in 1765 and 1766, but was defused by the repeal of the Stamp Act. Colonists had a difficult time speaking with a unified voice in reaction to the Townshend Duties, and opposition never gained the strength it had in 176566. The Tea Act itself also did not bring about a strong opposition everywhere. But once Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, many (but not all) colonial Americans felt compelled to resist.
Resistance, however, was not revolution. Few people even in 1774 saw the war on the horizon. Nor did they see the coming of independence and the renouncing of King George III. It would take the course of events at the Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775) and another year of conflict before many Americans were ready for the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776). During that year, colonial Americans became a divided people. Some remained loyal to their king. Others were shocked that his majesty would wage war on them. On August 23, 1775, King George declared his colonies to be in a state of rebellion and authorized the use of force, and even mercenaries, to put down the rebellion. In January 1776, Thomas Paine published his Common Sense advocating not just independence, but also a whole new social system without a monarchy. In July, the Second Continental Congress declared that the king had sought to destroy American liberty and thereby abrogated the social contract. Only then did independence become an option pursued by many Americans.
See also Declaration of Independence; Loyalists; republicanism.
Further reading: Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765-1776 (New York: Knopf, 1972); Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (New York: Viking, 2006).
Revere, Paul (1734-1818) revolutionary, businessman
Paul Revere was a skilled silversmith and astute businessman who has become a national icon thanks to Henry Wadsworth Longfellows patriotic poem “Paul Revere’s Ride” (written in 1860). Revere was the son of a French Huguenot immigrant and Boston silversmith. Paul Revere continued the family business when his father died and he gained a reputation throughout the colonies as a master in his craft. Today, his creations are considered among the most outstanding achievements in American decorative arts.
Revere served as a second lieutenant in a failed campaign against the French fortifications on Lake Champlain at the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754-63). Returning to Boston in late 1756, Revere supplemented his family’s income by engraving copper plates and by dentistry. Revere was also very active in the St. Andrew’s Lodge of Freemasons (see also freemasonry), along with James Otis and Dr. Joseph Warren. Besides discussing business issues, members of the Lodge also discussed Enlightenment ideas that would later influence their reactions to events in Boston.
Revere joined the opposition to the Stamp Act (1765), becoming a member of the Sons of Liberty and the North End Caucus. Revere also began engraving political cartoons for the Boston Gazette. After the Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770), Revere captured the scene in his engraving “The BLOODY MASSACRE perpetrated in King Street,” which fueled colonial resentment. While no one knows if Revere participated directly in the Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773), the Boston committee of correspondence sent him to New York bearing news of the incident. In 1774 Revere became the direct link between the Boston Committee of Correspondence
Paul Revere's ride. Painting (NationalArchives)
And the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, transmitting information about the resistance in Massachusetts to the Coercive Acts (1774). Revere not only served as a courier, but also gathered intelligence concerning the movement of British soldiers, including the preparations of General Thomas Gage in Boston in mid-April 1775. Revere’s famous ride took place on the night of April 18 and the morning of April 19, 1775. British officers intercepted Revere and another rider, William Dawes, after Revere had reached Lexington. However, the British officers released Revere, and he returned to Lexington to retrieve John Hancock’s trunk full of papers and was there when the Battle of Lexington began on April 19, 1775 (see also Battles Of Lexington and Concord).
During the war, Revere served as lieutenant colonel in the Massachusetts militia, commanding the troops defending Castle Island in Boston Harbor. Revere also opened a powder mill where he cast musket balls and cannon for the Continental army. Also Congress commissioned him to design and print the first Continental currency and the first official seal. Revere’s chances of advancement in the military ended with accusations of insubordination in the failed Penobscot campaign (July 25-August 14, 1779), although a court-martial acquitted Revere of all charges.
Revere returned to Boston and his business interests, which by the end of the war included importation of European goods and a small hardware store. Revere became a successful businessman, and in 1801 opened the first copper rolling mill in the United States. This enterprise expanded rapidly, and Revere provided the copper sheeting for the hull of the USS Constitution and the dome of the Massachusetts State House. Revere turned all his business interests over to his sons and grandsons in 1810 and died in Boston on May 10, 1818.
Further reading: David Hackett Fisher, Paul Revere’s Ride (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Jayne E. Triber, A True Republican: The Life of Paul Revere (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998).
—Heather Clemmer
World History
