Baptists

Although they identified closely with the English Puritans, Baptists parted ways with their fellow dissenters over the issues of infant baptism and the civil government’s role in matters of religion. Convinced that the New World offered greater opportunities for religious freedom, many Baptists made the voyage to North America. Because of the intolerance these so-called Anabaptists experienced, many of them assimilated into the establishment churches, whether Congregational or Anglican. However, upon the arrival of Roger Williams in 1631, Baptists had their much-needed champion for liberty of conscience. Even though his tenure as a Baptist was brief, Williams aided in founding the first Baptist church in North America in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1638. A second church soon followed (1641) under the leadership of John Clarke, who provided stability to the growing denomination.

Following the establishment of their first two churches, Baptists grew slowly in the New England Colonies. The Middle and Southern Colonies, however, provided a more conducive environment for growth, most of which occurred in the latter part of the 18th century. This growth multiplied after the formation of the Philadelphia Association in 1707, which provided an example of church cooperation that would foster the phenomenal expansion of Baptists in the late 1700s. In 1707 about 50 Baptist churches existed; in 1763 there were about 250.

Three major issues arose in Baptist life during this period. The first was the concern for religious liberty, or soul liberty. Under the leadership of figures such as Roger Williams and Isaac Backus, Baptists struggled to avoid granting the government undue authority in matters of religion. For instance, they opposed mandatory church attendance and taxation on behalf of the established church. Second, Baptists expressed great concern for the purity, or regenerate nature, of the visible church. Thus, they sought to secure the conversion of every member through such practices as the administration of church discipline. The third matter Baptists dealt with into the early 19th century was the division between Separate Baptists, who emphasized the continued work of the Holy Spirit, and Regular Baptists, who were wary of much of the enthusiasm prominent in the revivals known as the First Great Awakening.

During the First Great Awakening some Baptist women assumed new roles. Although most continued in the traditional roles of wives and mothers, some Separate Baptists permitted women to pray aloud during religious meetings. They also defended the practice of female exhorting— the public calling of others to repent. Examples include Martha Stearns Marshall, a Separate Baptist known for her public prayers and exhortations, and Margaret Meuse Clay. Although certainly not the rule, women served as deacons and elders in some churches. They were not always allowed to speak publicly in these capacities, but their congregations still recognized such women as spiritual leaders.

Baptists also welcomed both Native American and African-American converts more warmly than did the established churches. However, most Baptists still shared the common racial prejudices of this period. Thus, they distinguished between Christian fellowship on the one hand and social and racial equality on the other hand. New England Baptists may have relinquished some of these prejudices before their southern counterparts, but Baptists of the South still undertook missions work to both Native Americans and slaves.

Further reading: William G. McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630-1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); Carla Gardina Pestana, Quakers and Baptists in Colonial Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

—Richard A. Bailey

Bartram, John (1699-1777) American naturalist An important scientist and naturalist and known as the originator of American botany, John Bartram was born in Marple, Pennsylvania, the eldest son of farmer William Bartram and his wife, Elizabeth Hunt. After the death of John’s mother in 1701, his father remarried in 1707 and took his second wife and their children in 1711 to live in North Carolina. John and his younger brother, James, remained behind, living with their grandmother. John married Mary Maris on April 25, 1723, and three months later inherited his grandmother’s farm near Philadelphia. They had two children, only one of whom reached adulthood. Two years after Mary’s death in 1727, Bartram married Ann Mendenahall. They had nine children, including William Bartram, who followed in his father’s role as a scientist.

Despite being raised in a devout Quaker household, John Bartram struggled with his faith. By the mid-1750s he was critical of Quaker pacifism and the divinity of Jesus, prompting the Society of Friends (Quakers) to disown him in 1757. Nevertheless, he was active in his local Quak-er community and was buried in the Darby Friends burial ground.

As a child Bartram received only a basic formal education, studying for about four years at the Darby Quaker School, yet he was fascinated with science, taking a special interest in botany. He produced the American colonies’ first botanical garden and worked with Joseph Breintnall to collect and identify specimens of North American trees. Through Breintnall Bartram gained access to the scientific circles of Britain, corresponding with various members of the Royal Society and developing a friendship and 35-year correspondence with one of its leading figures and fellow Quaker, Peter Collinson. Through Collinson Bartram published seven papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and the results of a series of plant experiments in the popular Gentleman's Magazine.

Bartram was also an avid explorer, regularly traveling in the North American interior. His expeditions included journeys to the sources of the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania, the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, the Catskill Mountains, the swamps of Delaware, the back-countries of the Carolinas, and Florida. By the 1740s Bartram’s reputation had spread, resulting in a steady stream of special requests for North American specimens from scientists throughout the Atlantic world. During his expeditions he collected plants, animals, and American

Indian artifacts, keeping some specimens for his own collections but sending a great deal to his associates. Several artifacts were sent to Sir Hans Sloane, who founded the British Museum, where a number of Bartram’s contributions remain on display to this day.

Bartram’s achievement as a naturalist led to international recognition. He was a founding member of the American Philosophical Society, was elected to the Veteuskapsakademie (Sweden’s Royal Academy of Sciences), and received a medal from the Society of Gentlemen in Edinburgh. In 1765 Bartram was appointed the botanist to King George III (1760-1820), which carried an annual stipend of ?50. He died at home on his Kingsessing farm.

Further reading: E. Berkeley and D. S. Berkeley, The Life and Travels of John Bartram: From Lake Ontario to the River St. John (Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida, 1982); Thomas P Slaughter, The Natures of John and William Bartram, 1734-1777 (New York: Knopf, 1996).

—Troy O. Bickham

Batts, Thomas (fl. 1671) English colonist Explorer Thomas Batts was one of the first known Englishmen to cross the Appalachian Mountains, in 1671. Major General Abraham Wood, commander of Fort Henry, obtained a commission from Governor Berkeley of Virginia charging Batts with investigating the territory west of the mountains in search of the “South Sea.” The original group included Robert Fallam, Penecute (an Indian guide), Thomas Woods, and Jack Weason. General Wood sent seven additional Indian guides to join the expedition three days later. The arrival of the seven Apomatack was fortunate because Penecute became ill several days later. Fallam’s detailed journal of the expedition provides an important resource for scholars today.

The group traveled along the Roanoke River to the Blue Ridge Mountains, where they discovered a west-flowing stream they called Wood’s River (later renamed New River). After following the river to Peter’s Fall (near the present-day Virginia-West Virginia border), they were forced to turn back due to threatening weather. Along the way Fallam recorded trees with carvings etched into their trunks, presumably by earlier white explorers.

On the return trip they met William Byrd, accompanied by a larger group of men conducting their own exploration of the area. Batts returned to Fort Henry after traveling 23 days and 720 miles. Significantly, Batts and Fallam’s claim to the New River strengthened England’s claim to the Ohio Valley and most of the Allegheny territory.

Further reading: Robert D. Mitchell, Appalachian Frontiers: Settlement, Society Development in the Preindustrial Era (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1991).

—Lisa A. Ennis