Effectiveness

Artillery was decisive in some battles, such as Marignano (1515) and Pinkie (1547) and was always useful except in very difficult terrain such as that of Ulster, and nearly all European and Middle Eastern armies of the period employed as much as

The artillery they could afford. Accuracy was very limited over about 300 yards (1/4 inch ‘windage’ was allowed between shot and bore) and rates of fire were not high, probably because guns were loaded with shovelfuls of loose powder from a barrel (usually closed with a leather cover with a drawstring).

Cartridges, though known, were not apparently used much until the advent of Gustavus’ regimental guns, which, using them, achieved rates of fire of up to three rounds a minute — faster than a musket. William Eldred, in The Gunners’ Glasse (1646) gave eight rounds per hour as the average, though other evidence seems to show that quite large 17th Century guns such as culverins could manage ten rounds an hour; ‘Drakes’ (guns under 5 pounders) of the same period achieved 15 rph. For safety, a gun was supposed to fire only a limited number of shots per day, or at least before having a cooling-down period (for example, a 20 pounder culverin of Henry VIII was limited to 36 rounds a day). The usual missile was an iron cannon ball, though enormous stone shot were still favoured by the Turks. Case-shot (lead balls in a canister) is first recorded from 1410, and was used at close range against attacking troops, especially by light and multiple guns. Chain shot was used in special circumstance (for example to sweep troops off a beach) and mortars already used explosive shells, though this could be a highly dangerous business.

The very deep infantry formations common in the 16th Century probably made very good targets for artillery, cannon balls ploughing through several ranks at a tirne, and another useful effect was the frequent ‘stinging‘ of not over-disciplined troops into disastrous attacks by steady artillery fire. Field fortifications, lying down and ‘double distance’ were employed to counteract artillery fire.

Two views of an Elizabethan demi-culverin on replica carriage at Pevensey Castle. Bore 41/2 inches, overall length of barrel 11 feet 1 inch, track 45V2 inches, wheel diameter 52 inches, overall length about 18 feet.

Artillery linstocks of the early 17th Century (Tower of London).

Miniature Figurines models of a 17th Century Saker with early type of limber, and crewman.