The key words "Yemen," "Arab," and "Middle East" may be used in searching for resources describing the region and its peoples. The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East, by Reeva S. Simon, Philip Mattar, and Richard W. Bulliet (1996), is clearly written and provides accurate and unbiased information. Lands and People Special Edition: Crisis in the Middle East (1992) contains a time line showing events in Yemen and the rest of the Middle East from 1943 to 1991.
From the series of Westview Profiles of Nations of the Contemporary Middle East come two excellent studies: The Yemen Arab Republic, by Manfred W. Wenner (1991), and South Yemen: AMarx-ist Republic in Arabia, by Robert W. Stookey (1982). These two resources provide comprehensive background and facts, although the Marxist republic collapsed with the end of the Soviet Union. The most complete resource, Historical Dictionary of Yemen (1995),
By Robert D. Burrowes, is a volume in Scarecrow Press's Asian Historical Dictionaries series.
Yemen: The Unknown Arabia (2000), by Tim Mackintosh-Smith, is a charming description of Yemen by an Englishman who lived there for two decades and became fascinated with the country and its people. Those looking for an understanding of the nation's historical background should read A History of Modern Yemen (2001), by Paul Dresch. The maps and detailed chronology make Dresch's book particularly useful. Sally Searight's Yemen: Land and People (2002) is a short introduction with color photographs that convey the beauty of the country. Readers seeking information about the USS Cole incident should turn to The Attack on the USS Cole in Yemen on October 12, 2000 (2002), by Betty Burnett.
Resources on special events are available in periodicals and databases. "The Third Inter-Yemeni War and Its Consequences," by Fred Halliday, in Asian Affairs (June, 1995), explains the civil war in 1994. Foreign Affairs, Middle East Quarterly, and the Economist also provide reliable coverage. Press databases provide news on a wide variety of topics, such as political issues, border wars, khat use, archeological digs, natural disasters, and environmental issues.
A search of the Internet should begin with Yemen Net, the official site. This is an excellent resource for information on religion, culture, government, political parties, and more. An e-mail link to the Yemen embassy in the United States is provided: Yemen@erols. com. There are also links to Arab Net, Arab World Factbook, Yemen in the CIA World Factbook, and the Yemen Times. The Yemen Times weekly newspaper, begun in 1991, is in English, with archived issues available through Java software. The Yemen Times focuses on nongovernmental organizations and may be accessed at y. net. ye/yementimes.
United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Peacekeeping is a technique developed by the United Nations (U. N.) during the Cold War to limit conflict among and within sovereign states. Peacekeeping uses multinational forces to intervene when fighting occurs or threatens to break out between two or more states. United Nations peacekeepers have not, for the most part, engaged in military action. They are neither equipped nor authorized to fight. They operate only with the consent of the host country and are politically neutral. Peacekeeping forces have been deployed when the parties to a conflict have agreed to accept the intervention of a third party as a buffer between hostile forces.
Peacekeeping operations can be classified into three broad categories: those giving assistance in maintenance of cease-fires or truces, those implementing comprehensive settlements, and those that engage in humanitarian operations. In the first category, peacekeepers monitor cease-fires and enable clashing armies to pull back to a safe distance, where an atmosphere conducive to negotiations may be created. The primary goal of this type of mission is to allow time for political leaders and diplomats to negotiate and try to resolve underlying conflicts.
The second broad type was developed in the late 1980's and 1990's. With the end of the Cold War, members of the United Nations Security Council were able to agree on more ambitious and diversified operations. In providing a wider range of civilian experts to serve in such areas as human rights, local security, elections, and the reintegration of combatants to civilian life, the United Nations was able to assist in the strengthening of national institutions torn apart by war. These operations typically have been deployed for a limited time period, usually eighteen months to two years, at which point the peace process is sufficiently consolidated for the peacekeepers to be withdrawn.
The third category of peacekeeping is an attempt by the United Nations to alleviate situations of massive human suffering. This type of operation is typically employed to protect the delivery of humanitarian relief in situations where armed violence has prevented efforts to assist a distressed population. This type of operation has frequently been difficult, especially in cases where the consent of the parties was tenuous or the operation took place in the midst of ongoing hostilities rather than in the context of a negotiated agreement.
Peacekeeping operations may be initiated by either the General Assembly or the Security Council of the United Nations. The secretary general has executive responsibility for U. N. peacekeeping forces and usually delegates operational control over field forces to military officers. Contributions of military units by sovereign governments to serve as peacekeepers is voluntary. Nations contributing forces are reimbursed by the United Nations. The cost of peacekeeping operations is borne by the membership according to an agreed formula. The United States has paid the largest part of U. N. peacekeeping operations—31 percent during the 1990's.
Most U. N. operations have been successful in promoting peace and stability in their regions, and most U. N. members view peacekeeping as a vital function of the world organization. The demand for U. N. peacekeeping has increased since the end of the Cold War, in part because of the proliferation of civil wars throughout the world. At the same time, the presence of Russia on the U. N. Security Council as a successor to the Soviet Union has resulted in greater harmony among the permanent members, whose concurrence is necessary for peacekeeping operations to be authorized. Each of the five permanent members of the Security Council—China, France, Great Britain, Russia, and the United States— has the power to veto any Security Council decision. Between 1948 and 1996, forty-two peacekeeping operations were established.
This growing demand for peacekeeping has imposed a severe financial burden on the United Nations. In 1995 alone peacekeeping costs totaled US$2.8 billion. For a variety of reasons several member states have failed to pay their share of the costs of peacekeeping, creating a serious financial constraint on the organization's capacity to act. In addition, the United Nations has encountered political opposition because of dissatisfaction with the outcome of a few operations. Peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Bosnia, and Rwanda were particularly controversial. These cases illustrate some of the central paradoxes of modern peacekeeping. There is usually a strong international demand for peacekeeping intervention when civil wars produce widespread killing and crimes against humanity. Often the traditional goals of peacekeeping cannot be achieved without some use of force by the peacekeepers. However, the countries capable of mobilizing that force are sometimes unwilling to make it available or pay for it. Governments are reluctant to shed the nation's blood where no vital national interests are involved. The challenge for the United Nations is to know when to say "no" and when to say "yes" to peacekeeping. From the U. N. perspective an equal challenge is how to acquire the capability to "yes" when situations require it.
By early 2003, the United Nations had launched more than fifty peacekeeping operations, most of which were by then completed. They have ranged in strength from two to over 20,000 peacekeepers and have been deployed in every region of the world. The following is a brief description of individual U. N. peacekeeping operations in Asia and the Middle East, arranged in chronological order:
U. N. Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO): Assists the U. N. mediator in supervising a truce between Israel and the Arab states of Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. Its functions have changed with changing circumstances following wars in 1956,1967, and 1973 and peace agreements between Israel and Egypt and Jordan. Number of peacekeepers in late 2002: 255. Duration: June, 1948-present.
U. N. Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP): Created to supervise the cease-fire between India and Pakistan in Jammu and Kashmir. Number of peacekeepers in late 2002: 44. Duration: January, 1949-present.
U. N. Emergency Force (UNEF I): First large-scale force created by the General Assembly. UNEF became the model for U. N. peacekeeping. It supervised the withdrawal of British, French, and Israeli forces from the Sinai. Egyptian demand for its removal in 1967 led to the outbreak of the Six-Day War. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 6,073. Duration: November, 1956-June, 1967.
U. N. Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL): Prevented the infiltration of people or arms across the Lebanese borders. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 591. Duration: June, 1958-December, 1958.
U. N. Temporary Executive Authority and the U. N. Security
Force (UNTEA/UNSF): Administered the territory of West Irian pending its transition from Dutch to Indonesian rule. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 1,576. Duration: October, 1962-April, 1963.
U. N. Yemen Observation Mission (UNYOM): Implemented a truce between Saudi Arabia and Egypt in Yemen. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 189. Duration: July, 1963-September, 1964.
U. N. India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIPOM): Supervised a cease-fire along India-Pakistan border. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 78. Duration: September, 1965-March, 1966.
Second U. N. Emergency Force (UNEF II): Supervised the ceasefire agreement between Egypt and Israel in the Suez Canal and Sinai Peninsula following the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 6,773. Duration: October, 1973-July, 1979.
U. N. Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF): Created to supervise a cease-fire between Israel and Syria, and establish a buffer zone in the Golan Heights. Number of peacekeepers in late 2002: 1,123. Duration: June, 1974-present.
U. N. Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL): Created to confirm the withdrawal of Israeli forces from southern Lebanon. Number of peacekeepers in late 2002:2,127. Duration: March, 1978-present.
U. N. Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP): Monitored the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. Maximum number of peacekeepers: 50. Duration: April, 1988-March, 1990.
U. N. Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG): Supervised a truce between Iran and Iraq. Number of peacekeepers in 1990: 399. Duration: August, 1988-February, 1991.
U. N. Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM): Created to supervise a truce between Iraq and Kuwait following the ouster of Iraq from Kuwait by a coalition of forces. Number of
Peacekeepers in late 2002:1,105. Duration: April, 1991-present.
U. N. Mission for the Referendum in the Western Sahara (MINURSO): Created to supervise a peace plan agreed by parties in a civil war and conduct a referendum on the status of the Western Sahara. Number of peacekeepers in late 2002: 217. Duration: April, 1991-present.
U. N. Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC): Supervised a cease-fire between the parties in a Cambodian civil war. Duration: October, 1991-March, 1992.
U. N. Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC): Supervised peace accords in Cambodia. Duration: March, 1992-Sep-tember, 1993.
U. N. Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG): Monitored the withdrawal of Libyan forces from territory in Chad in accordance with a decision of the International Court of Justice. Duration: May, 1994-June, 1994.
U. N. Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA): Aid mission directed by the U. N. Department of Peacekeeping Operations created to ensure that all forms of U. N. assistance go toward the peace process after the overthrow of the Taliban regime. Duration: March, 2002-present.
U. N. Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET): Commissioned to provide assistance to the newly independent nation of East Timor, which changed its name to Timor-Leste. Number of peacekeepers authorized in late 2002: up to 5,000. Duration: May, 2002-present.
World History
