Clergy

The word clergy (kleros) originally referred to all Christians, who formed part of God’s inheritance or kleronomia (1 Pet. 5: 3). Later the term was used to indicate those who were appointed to serve and minister to the laity, or ordinary members, within the Christian Church. In the earliest period (ist-2nd centuries ce) a threefold structure, made up of bishops, presbyters, and deacons, emerged quickly, but it is clear that some other ministries, such as prophecy, teaching, and healing, could be carried out by lay members of the Church (1 Cor. 12: 27-31). The latter offices were abandoned in the course of the second century, probably in response to abuses and to heresies such as Montanism which involved charismatic teaching and prophecy. During the second and third centuries, increasing recognition was given to the bishop as the primary source of unity and authority within the Christian Church. Irenaeus of Lyons (d. c.200) stressed the importance of apostolic succession in the ordination of bishops in the Church, while Cyprian (d. 258) affirmed, ‘Where the bishop is, there is the Church’ {Ep. 66. 8). It is clear that, whatever other functions presbyters and deacons fulfilled during the first three centuries, bishops were invested with the authority to oversee Christian communities, to administer the sacraments, and to uphold orthodox doctrine both by preaching and by attending ecclesiastical councils (Rapp 2005).

In the course of the fourth century, with the adoption of Christianity as an official religion by Constantine I and subsequent emperors, the organization of the secular Church was further codified. Episcopal dioceses followed the division of Roman territories into political provinces; thus the major city in each province became the seat of a metropolitan, or head bishop, who had authority over other bishops within his area. The bishops of cities which boasted apostolic origins, or which had played a particularly important part in the early establishment of Christianity, including Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and, after 381, Constantinople, became preeminent among their colleagues and by the sixth century were known as ‘patriarchs’ (Justinian I, Nov. cxxiii.3). The term ‘bishop’ remains the generic term throughout the Byzantine period, however, in spite of the use of honorific titles such as ‘patriarch’, ‘metropolitan’, and ‘archbishop’. An elaborate hierarchy of bishops began to be established, beginning with the patriarchates: thus Constantinople, as capital of the eastern empire, took Alexandria’s place as second after Rome (Council of Constantinople I, canon 3). Metropolitans of major cities were next in importance, while the bishops under their jurisdiction themselves followed lists of precedence. These hierarchies were upheld in documents such as the Notitiae Episcopatuum which were compiled from the seventh century onwards; such texts were subject to constant revision in response to political and ecclesiastical developments (Dar-rouzes 1981). The order in which bishoprics were listed in these documents dictated placement in liturgical and imperial ceremonies, signatures on the Acts of Church councils, and other official expressions of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

In the middle and later periods of Byzantine history, the threefold hierarchy of the clergy, comprising bishops, presbyters or priests, and deacons, remained in place along with the minor orders of subdeacons, deaconesses, readers, and others. The various orders were distinguished not only by the balance of priestly versus ministerial functions in their responsibilities, but also by the method of ordination. The numbers of clergy at any given time are difficult to establish, but sources such as the Acts of Church councils provide some clues. The clergy attached to Hagia Sophia in Constantinople included more than 600 in the seventh century; in an attempt to decrease this the emperor Herakleios established maximum numbers for each order from priest to doorkeeper. After the military losses in the course of the eleventh century, refugee members of clergy from lost territories of the empire became an increasing burden on Church finances in the capital city (Hussey 1986: 321-2). It is clear that in the changing circumstances of the later Byzantine world, earlier canons such as that forbidding the movement of clergy from their dioceses became increasingly difficult to uphold.

All clergy were subject to the jurisdiction of a bishop, archbishop, metropolitan, or patriarch who would regulate their way of life with reference to ecclesiastical law. Canons of Church councils, later commentaries, and imperial legislation established the rules by which clergy were expected to carry out their duties. Many of the canons which became authoritative within the Church were affirmed in the Council

In TruUo (691-2) which also repudiated a purportedly early document which was actually compiled in late fourth-century Syria, called the Apostolic Constitutions. Canons of the Council in TruUo concern such matters as the approved age for ordination into the various orders of the clergy, celibacy and marriage, which occupations clergy may enter into in addition to their ecclesiastical duties, how often they should preach, clerical dress, and many others. On the subject of celibacy, the CouncU recommends this only as a voluntary option on the part of aU clergy except bishops. Marriage could take place only with certain classes of women, however (excluding widows, prostitutes, actresses, and servants), and it should in theory take place before ordination to the subdiaconate. It is interesting to note that the canons dealing with the marital status and occupations of clergy, especiaUy in the higher orders, stress the issue of ritual purity more than the ethical impUcations of personal behaviour. The last canons to emerge from an ecclesiastical councU were published by the patriarch Photios in 879-80; after this commentaries of canon law continued to be compUed, especiaUy in the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.

The Ranks of Clergy

1. Bishop

As stated above, the term ‘bishop’ applies to patriarchs, metropoUtans, archbishops, and bishops (both suffragan and assistant bishops or chorepiskopoi) throughout the Byzantine period. After the ‘ecumenical’ patriarch of Constantinople, who after the seventh century occupied the only remaining patriarchal seat under Byzantine rule, metropolitans held the second highest rank in the Orthodox Church. Patriarchs were elected by the standing synod in Constantinople, which presented three names to the emperor. He was entitled to choose one of these, or, if unable to accept any of the candidates, to choose the new patriarch himself.

The title ‘archbishop’ emerged in special cases, for example in important cities such as Athens which did not possess a metropolitan. Autocephalous archbishops belonged to a separate category, usuaUy as a result of the division of an ecclesiastical province into two parts. If the existing metropolitan refused to share power and property, the bishop of the second city might be offered this honorary rank. He remained under direct supervision of the patriarch and without suffragan bishops of his own. Chorepiskopoi (UteraUy ‘country bishops’) were assigned to rural communities and were subject to a bishop in a nearby city. After the fourth century, the powers and functions of chorepiskopoi were gradually restricted and they were allowed only to ordain clerics of the lower orders. After the second Council of Nicaea (787) which prohibited them from ordaining even readers (anagnostai) without episcopal assent (canon 14), this separate episcopal rank began to disappear (Jugie 1904).

According to canon law (Nicaea I, canon 49), bishops were elected by the suffragan bishops of a given province who were asked by their metropolitan to select three names. He would then select and consecrate one of these candidates. It is likely that Justinian I encouraged the lower clergy and leading citizens to participate in the election of bishops, but the involvement only of bishops was reaffirmed by the second Council of Nicaea (787), canon 3. From about the ninth century onwards there is increasing evidence that episcopal elections frequently took place in Constantinople, contrary to canon law, owing to the constant presence of metropolitans in the capital city. Efforts were made in the eleventh century to stop this practice, but it was eventually sanctioned in 1072 by the patriarch John XiphiUnos.

From about the fourth century onwards, bishops were expected to be celibate; if married already they could separate from their wives, making provision for them in a suitable convent. Whereas many bishops were drawn from a monastic background, some came from a lay, professional sphere and were powerfully connected. A reasonable standard of education was expected; bishops should at least be capable of reading the canons, scriptures, writings of the Fathers, and should have learned the Psalter by heart. Canon 19 of the Council in TruUo suggests that standards of education were falling among clergy by the late seventh century; nevertheless, bishops would be expected to preach in accordance with traditional theological and rhetorical standards. Priestly functions, including the celebration of the Eucharist and the administration of the sacraments represented the primary duties of bishops; in addition to these, however, bishops were responsible for all of the institutions and officials providing service to the community in their dioceses, for overseeing the administration of Church property and finances, judging in ecclesiastical courts, and attending both local and ecumenical councils. Bishops were assisted in all of these spheres by lower clergy and assistants, whose various functions are described below.

2. Priest or presbyter fpresbyteros, 'elder')

In the early Church, priests or presbyters served as advisers, teachers, and ministers who assisted the bishops to whom they were assigned. As Christianity spread in the course of the fourth century, priests were increasingly put in charge of parishes and allowed to celebrate the Eucharist. Priests were also allowed to preach in liturgical celebrations although their sermons must follow that of the bishop if he should be present. In the course of Byzantine history priests could be appointed either to the public, ‘catholic’ parish churches under the direct jurisdiction of bishops or to private foundations, still subject to a bishop’s approval. Although priests were usually provided with small stipends from their episcopal dioceses and fees from their parishioners, they tended as a class to maintain secular professions as well. Imperial laws and the Acts of successive Church councils attempt to regulate the types of employment undertaken by priests, but all ecclesiastical sources, including

Later interpreters of canon law, acknowledge the right of priests to earn a Hving in the world, as well as in the Church (Constantelos 1985). Educational requirements for priests were not rigorous; they were expected to possess a basic knowledge of Christian doctrine, the canons, and to lead a blameless life. The minimum age for men’s ordination to the priesthood was 30 years of age (Justinian, Nov. cxxiii; TruUo, canon 14). Priests were never, at any period in Byzantine history, required to be celibate, although they were expected to have entered matrimony before ordination to the subdiaconate.

3. Deacon fdiakonos, 'servanf)

Although fulfilling an important function in the Church, from earliest times and throughout the Byzantine period, deacons were restricted to pastoral and auxiliary roles in their ministry. Deacons assisted the priest or bishop at the Divine Liturgy, baptisms, and other sacraments. At the same time, certain passages in Hturgical texts suggest that the deacon symboHcally represents the laity in its supplications to God. Various administrative and pastoral jobs were delegated to deacons from an early period; they helped bishops to dispense charity to the community, manage the diocese’s finances and property, and to deal with other official business (Laodikeia, canons 21, 23, 25). Deacons were subject to the authority of both bishops and priests, but they came to exercise considerable power, especially in the patriarchate of Constantinople. The number of deacons serving at Hagia Sophia was limited to 150 in the seventh century; later this number probably declined. Deacons could be ordained from the age of 25 years and like priests, they could be married.

The Lower Orders

4. Deaconess fdiakonissaj

The office of deaconess is hinted at already in Paul’s Epistle to the Romans in which he refers to Phoebe, a ‘deacon’ of the Church at Cencreae (Rom. 16; 1-2). It may be that Paul was not referring to an official order, but simply to someone whom he regarded as a ‘servant’ of the Church. Other early sources which mention female deacons include Origen, commenting on the passage in Romans cited above, the third-century DidascaliUy and the late fourth-century Apostolic Constitutions. It is clear in many of these sources that deaconesses were bound by a vow of chastity; the order could include not only virgins, but also widows. The office is mentioned officially in canon 19 of the Council of Nicaea (325). The deaconess’s chief Hturgical role was to assist at the baptisms of women; she also acted as a mediator between women parishioners and their bishops, kept order among female members of the congregation, and ministered especially to women. The office disappeared in the

West after the decline of adult baptisms in the Church; in Byzantium it seems to have survived until as late as the eleventh century. The minimum age for ordination of deaconesses was originally 6o, but this was later reduced to 40 (Chalcedon, canon 15; TruUo, canon 14).

5. Subdeacon

The rank of subdeacon provided a stepping-stone to that of deacon; its duties were similar to those of the deacon. Marriage must take place before ordination to the subdiaconate, as in the case of the upper three orders of clergy.

6. Reader (anagnostesj

A reader is a member of the lower clergy with the responsibility of reading, usually from the ambo, passages from the Epistles and the Old Testament prescribed for offices and the Divine Liturgy. Along with other members of the minor orders, readers were ordained by the sign of the cross (sphragis) rather than by the laying on of hands (cheirotonia) by the bishop which was required for the upper clergy.

7. Other minor orders

Other members of the minor clerical orders included doorkeepers, exorcists, cantors, and widows. All of these officials helped in either liturgical, administrative, or pastoral functions. Most would have received payment from their dioceses, or, in the case of private foundations, from their donors, but it is likely that most would have been engaged in secular professions in order to supplement their incomes.

8. The major officials of Hagia Sophia

A large body of ecclesiastical officials served the patriarch and were connected permanently with the Great Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. These included the Synkellosy or patriarchal assistant, the Great OikonomoSy or finance minister. Great SkeuophylaXy or keeper of the Uturgical vessels. Great Sakellarios or treasurer, and many others. These officials were mostly taken from the ranks of the clergy, especially the diaconate. Their responsibilities and status had nothing to do with their ecclesiastical status since their services were seen as ‘external’ to their liturgical functions. The power and influence of the various posts changed in the course of time; in the period after 1261 the patriarch increasingly made use of special officials, called exarchs, in order to bypass the Oikonomos (Hussey 1986:316).