Khubilai Khan’s empire in East Asia was the largest of the four successor states that emerged from the single Mongol empire. The Great Khan considered China the grandest prize of the Mongol Empire. Modern historians know more about it than the other khanates because of the detailed records the Chinese kept throughout their history. Khubilai’s China also has drawn more Western interest because of the writings of Marco Polo and other Europeans who traveled there.
As both the emperor of China and the Mongol Great Khan, Khubi-lai blended the political systems of the two peoples. The overall political structure, however, was more clearly Mongol, with the government focused on tribal organizations. Khubilai relied on jarquchi and daruqachi to carry out their traditional functions, although many government officials and departments received Chinese names. Khubilai wanted to at least appear Chinese, in an effort to retain the loyalty of his conquered subjects.
Adopting a Religion
During the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols embraced many Chinese traditions, including Buddhism. This statue of the Buddha of Compassion is from 14th-century China.
Soon after the 1260 quriltai, some of Khubilai’s Chinese advisors made suggestions on how to run his central government. Not surprisingly, they wanted to keep as many traditional Chinese structures as possible. Khubilai accepted some of their ideas concerning economics. The government, for example, issued paper money and kept control of certain key industries, such as mining. But the Great Khan rejected the idea that he
Should keep the examination system used to select civil servants-the government workers who carried out most daily activities.
The Chinese system was designed to ensure that the most talented people served in the government, regardless of family connections and no matter who was ruling. Candidates for the civil service sat for examinations, which tested their knowledge of Chinese history, literature, and philosophy. Those who passed the examinations received government appointments. The civil service was dominated by the ideas of Confucius, one of China’s greatest thinkers. Khubilai, however, did not trust the followers of Confucius who dominated Chinese politics. He was more interested in selecting civil servants loyal to him.
Khubilai divided the people of his realm into four classes. At the top were the Mongols, followed by western and Central Asians, then the Jin of northern China. The Song of southern China were at the bottom. The first two groups provided most of the emperor’s most trusted officials. The army was eventually split into three parts: a Mongol cavalry under Khubilai’s direct control, a provincial cavalry led by local commanders, and a Chinese infantry.
Khubilai also tried to make the government more efficient. He eliminated some departments and directed affairs through three main offices. The Secretariat handled most civilian issues, while the Privy Council addressed military affairs.
Paper Money
The Chinese invented paper money several hundred years before the rise of Chinggis Khan. The Mongols, however, helped spread its use. Marco Polo wrote in The Description of the World, "[I]n almost all the kingdoms subject to [Khubilai's] rule none is allowed to make or spend any other money." The Ilkhanate introduced paper money in Persia, and Marco Polo's descriptions of it introduced the idea of paper money to most Europeans. (Ironically, the Ilkhans did not understand how the system worked and paper money was soon withdrawn there.) Today, just as in Khubilai's China, only the central government of a nation is allowed to print money.
The Censorate made sure local officials performed their duties. Khubi-lai set strict penalties for government officials who broke the law or did not meet his standards for hard work. A lazy official might be beaten. So would officials who took bribes or used government workers to help them in their private lives.
Mongol dominance, however, was not consistent throughout China.
Despite the systems he set up, Khu-bilai did not have much real control in the more remote provinces. And although he demanded obedience and honesty, his legal system was not as harsh as the ones under some earlier and later Chinese dynasties.
World History
