Philosophy

The Guide of the Perplexed: An Overview

Maimonides’ The Guide of the Perplexed is not a philosophical work in the strict sense of the term. His primary intent in writing this treatise is not in order to expand the borders of philosophical knowledge or to explore topics on the basis of reason alone. It is closer in spirit to theology, defining and rationally defending basic religious tenets. Yet it is far different from the classic works belonging to this genre, such as Thomas Aquinas’ Summa theologica which is far more systematic in its presentation. The Guide devotes as much attention to the interpretation of Scriptural verses and passages from rabbinic texts as to rational argumentation and the rationale behind the order in which it presents its topics and the manner in which they are presented is not always evident.

In the introduction to his treatise Maimonides indicates that he wrote it for the individual who was steeped in Jewish tradition and went on to study philosophy, becoming in the process perplexed by the seeming contradictions between these two areas. Such an individual often feels that he is faced with an either/or choice - either to remain loyal to religious tradition at the expense of human reason or to abandon tradition in deference to reason. Maimon-ides sets out to show that there is another alternative - the reinterpretation of traditional texts in light of reason. Tradition hides certain profound truths from the masses by presenting them in a figurative manner in accordance with their limited capacities. Maimonides is very much influenced in this matter by the Platonic political tradition, particularly as developed by the Islamic philosopher al-Farabl. Most people are not prepared to appreciate the bright light of the truth and are blinded by it instead. Only with the attainment of wisdom does one begin to appreciate the truths underlying the Bible and rabbinic writings and understands that not all their words should be interpreted literally. Certain terms have figurative meanings and the prophets often speak in allegories. The corporeal descriptions of God, for example, are meant to uphold the masses’ belief in God, since they can only accept the existence of corporeal entities. In truth, however, all these descriptions should be interpreted in a figurative manner. Maimonides feels that the time was ripe to reveal the truth of God’s incorporeality to all the adherents of Judaism and insist that they uphold this belief. Many other topics, however, must continue to be presented in a veiled manner - for example, the Account of Creation at the beginning of the book of Genesis and the Account of the Chariot at the beginning of the book of Ezekiel - in order not to disturb the faith of the masses.

Maimonides explicitly indicates that while he will attempt to further enlighten his readers on the true meaning of traditional texts dealing with the most profound topics pertaining to Jewish thought, he will at the same time uphold the spirit of the prohibition not to present these truths explicitly but only hint at them. One of the techniques he employs is that of purposeful contradictions in his treatise in order to hide what he regards as the true view. Another is the diffusion of remarks hinting to his true view on a given topic in the context of his discussion of a different topic. Thus, to reconstruct Maimonides’ position on a given topic, it is important not only to pay close attention to the manner he presents his positions and the premises underlying them, but also to study the treatise in its entirety and not only the chapters pertaining to the topic in question. Maimonides assumes that the average reader is an inattentive reader who will not pick up on his hints. His writing technique, however, has resulted through the centuries in far different interpretations of the views he presents in his treatise.

From Maimonides’ introduction it is tempting to conclude that he sees the esoteric level of the traditional texts of Jewish tradition as being in essential agreement with the Aristotelian philosophical conception of the world, while on their exoteric level they appear to contradict the worldview of the philosophers. Otherwise why would he go to such extremes to hide his true views? This indeed has been the thrust of one important school of interpretation of the treatise throughout the ages, whose most famous modern exponent has been Leo Strauss. Yet in the Guide itself much of the most significant philosophical argumentation goes to proving that the philosophers accepted doctrines not demonstrably proven by reason and the traditional doctrines are in fact more in harmony with the dictates of reason. This is particularly true of Maimonides’ discussion of the creation of the world, which will be discussed in more detail below.

Maimonides divides his treatise in three sections. Many of the chapters of the first section form a philosophical lexicon, for the most part devoted to showing how terms connoting God’s corporeality or the corporeality of the angels should be interpreted figuratively. He also deals with the problems involved in attaining philosophical knowledge and the limits of human reason. Beginning with chap. 50 of the first part he enters into a detailed discussion ofdivine attributes and the names of God. He also presents his view of God’s relation to the world. All the positions he presents are in harmony with the Neoplatonized version of Aristotelian philosophy prevalent in his period. Maimonides concludes the first part by expounding in detail the proofs for the existence, unity, and incorporeality of God as presented in Moslem theology, the kalam, after depicting its fundamental premises. While he displays an exceptionally critical approach to this theology, particularly the premises upon which it is based, for the most part regarding them as false, he nevertheless ascribes to it an important role in proving God’s existence. The theologians prove God by first proving that the world is created. Maimonides argues that their proofs for creation are not demonstrative, resulting in their proofs for the existence of God being non-demonstrative. The Aristotelian philosophic proofs for the existence of God, on the other hand, are based on the premise that the world is without beginning. This too in Maimonides’ view has not been adequately demonstrated. We have then two sets of proofs for God based on contradictory propositions - that is, the world is created and the world is without beginning. Neither set provides us with a demonstrative proof for God’s existence. Yet if we combine both sets we have a demonstrative proof, since the world must be either created or without beginning, there is no third alternative. If we assume that the proofs for the creation of the world are correct, then the kalam has provided us with a demonstrative proof for the existence of God. If we assume that the proofs for eternity a parte ante of the world are correct, then the Aristotelian philosophers have provided us with a demonstrative proof.

Interestingly, Maimonides analyzes the philosophic proofs and the 26 premises upon which they are based at the beginning of the second part of the treatise, rather than at the end of the first. As opposed to his approach to the kalam he expresses full agreement with all the philosophic premises with the crucial exception of one - that time and movement are eternal and always existed in actu. In the following chapters of this part (chaps. 2-12) Maimonides proceeds to express his agreement also with the Aristotelian view how God governs the world through the order of nature and shows how Scripture should be interpreted accordingly. All physical changes in the world result from the fixed motion of the living spheres, each standing in relation to a Separate Intellect, with God serving as the First Cause and the Unmoved Mover on the pinnacle of the hierarchy of existence. The one point on which Maimonides breaks with the view of the philosophers is on the question of creation. The philosophers claim that the world with its fixed order always existed, God serving as the eternal First Cause of an eternal world eternally emanating from Him. Maimonides claims that God created the world and its order ex nihilo. Chapters 13-31 are devoted to negating the philosophic arguments for the eternity of the world and providing philosophic and religious arguments for its creation. Maimonides also discusses the question whether the world is eternal a parte post and presents his philosophic exegesis of the Account of Creation. In the context of this discussion he deals with the problem of miracles (chap. 29). He concludes the second part of the Guide with an analysis of the phenomenon of prophecy (chaps. 32-48), drawing a sharp distinction between this phenomenon, for the most part treated by him as a natural one, and two other phenomena which he treats as supernatural - the prophecy of Moses and the Revelation at Sinai. One can see that the acceptance of the doctrine of creation allows Maimonides to break with the Aristotelian philosophers, at least according to his explicit views, on the issue of purposeful exceptions to the natural order. Only the God of creation can also be the God of history, though Maimonides attempts to limit the occurrence of miracles and God’s immediate involvement in human affairs.

The third part of the Guide opens with a philosophical exegesis of the Account of the Chariot (chaps. 1-7), treating Ezekiel’s vision of the heavenly world as essentially presenting the order of the spheres and their Movers and their influence on the four sublunar elements - that is to say the scientific picture of the world - in an allegorical manner. The next topics that Maimonides discusses are the problems of evil, personal providence, and God’s knowledge of particulars. He also presents a philosophical analysis of the Book of Job (chaps. 8-24). He continues with a lengthy excursus of the reasons for the divine commandments presented in the Pentateuch (chaps. 25-50), and concludes the Guide with a discussion of human perfection (chaps. 51-54).