HUNGARY

Although their use of wagon-fortresses on the battlefield had increased noticeably by the mid-15th century, Hungarian tactics remained basically unchanged throughout most of this period. Hardly surprisingly, they were in effect a compromise between those of Eastern and Western Europe. For instance, though they had conventional feudal heavy cavalry who charged in characteristic ‘knightly’ fashion, either in lines or in columns about as many ranks deep as they were wide, it is nevertheless possible that their armament may have actually included Asiatic-style composite bows (see note to figure 88). There was, anyway, a proportionately smaller number of this particular troop-type available, so that they tended to be used sparingly in battle. Instead, the Hungarians relied particularly heavily on light cavalry, who fought largely in a skirmishing capacity ahead of the heavy cavalry on the battlefield, and as raiders and ambushers on the frontiers.

Wagon-fortresses, though nothing new to Hungarian warfare (one having been fielded at Mohi in 1241, for example), began to be allocated a more positive battlefield role under Janos Hunyadi in the 1440s, who introduced Hussite tactics via the large numbers of Bohemian mercenaries being employed in Hungary by that time. The wagon-fort played an important part at both Varna, where it provided a refuge on which the army could fall back if hard-pressed, and the second Battle of Kossovo, where it was predominantly manned by Bohemian and German handgunners. Sebastiano Baduario, a Venetian observer, reported that in a battle with the Ottomans Hunyadi’s son King Matthias Corvinus had as many as 3,000 wagons, while another Italian, Antonio Bonfini, claims that at a military review held at Wiener Neustadt in 1475/9 as many as 9,000 wagons were present which, he reports, were not only used to defend the camp ‘but also, as Hunyadi taught, they are armed with scythes and used to encircle the enemy in battle.’ Indeed, in what Bonfini describes as the speciality of Hungarian tactics, the so-called ‘scorpion’ formation, such wagons supported by light and heavy cavalry formed the army’s pincers, with the infantry and wagon-fortified camp forming the scorpion’s body, the infantry being drawn up in a square in front of their camp. It may have been just such a battle-array, or one very similar, that secured Hunyadi his victory at Nagyszeben in 1442, where an attack against one flank by wagons fitted with guns broke the opposing Turks.

Hungarian infantry of this period were much superior to their 12th-13th century counterparts, though their battlefield role still tended to be defensive in nature. They are best described in King Matthias’ own words, as written in 1480: ‘Some are light foot-soldiers, others are heavily armoured, and some are pavisiers [clipeati], who demand double pay because of their servants. In addition there are gun experts, but they are not as efficient in firing as the rest of the infantry [i. e. crossbowmen and archers]; they do best from behind the pavises at the start of battle or in sieges. We make it a rule that a fifth of the infantry are arquebusiers . . . We regard the heavy infantry as an immovable wall that, if necessary, would fight and die to the last man where they stood. When the opportunity presents itself the light infantry make forays, but, if their attack loses its impetus or if they are hard-pressed, they fall back behind the heavy infantry... All the infantry and arquebusiers are surrounded by armati and clipeati like a fortress. The pavises all round them give the impression of a fortress, behind which the light infantry shelter and fight as from behind castle walls, attacking when the time is right.’ It has been suggested that the adoption by Hungarian infantry of such a defensive formation was in imitation of the fortified infantry centre fielded by the Ottoman Turks; however, the reverse is more probably true, since close-order infantry existed in Hungary long before the rise of the Ottomans. In addition, it was from Hungary that the Turks later copied the wagon-fortress (see above).