During the Mycenaean age, Greek-speaking city-states created the first great civilization of the Greek mainland, producing large fortified cities, beautiful works of art, and a written language.
Date: 2100-1000 b. c.e.
Category: Cities and civilizations
Locale: Ancient city of Mycenae, other places on the Greek mainland
Background According to legend, the city of Mycenae was the capital of Agamemnon, the Achaean king who supposedly led the campaign against Troy. Ancient writers said that Perseus, the mythological hero of Argos and Tiryns, was the founder of the city, which derived its name from the eponymous heroine Mycene, the wife of Arestor. Contemporary historians now apply the adjective “Mycenaean” (mi-suh-NEE-uhn) to all the settlements on the Greek mainland during the late Bronze Age, although the settlements were not united into a single state. This label has been commonly used since the late nineteenth century, when Heinrich Schliemann’s archaeological discoveries brought to light the high level of civilization that once existed at the site of Mycenae.
History About 2100 b. c.e., the first Greek-speaking tribes probably arrived in the area. Apparently these fierce invaders already had a relatively advanced culture and knew how to use bronze, and they learned many additional skills from the non-Greek people they conquered, including shipbuilding, stone masonry, and the cultivation of olives. The invaders had no knowledge of writing, and archaeologists have discovered few objects that can be traced to their first five hundred years on the mainland.
By about 1600 b. c.e., archaeological evidence reveals that the Myce-naeans were building large stone cities located on high hills for protection. At this time, they also had powerful rulers, probably kings, who were buried in elaborate graves and tombs rather than the simple graves of earlier centuries. The objects left in the burial sites demonstrate that the Mycenae-ans had advanced skills in metallurgy and that they made numerous weapons, tools, and decorations out of bronze, gold, silver, and other metals (but not iron).
The Mycenaean Greeks were divided into regional kingdoms: Mycenae in the plain of Argos, Pylos in the plain of Messenia, Thebes in the plain of Boeotia, Iolcus in the great plain of Thessaly, and Athens (a minor kingdom) in Attica. The wealthiest and most powerful of the kingdoms were Mycenae and Pylos. In Homer’s Iliad (c. 750 b. c.e.; English translation, 1614), the Mycenaean king Agamemnon ruled as the supreme commander over a united Greek campaign, but most historians think it is unlikely that Mycenae ever exercised any real influence over the other kingdoms.
The Mycenaeans borrowed heavily from the Minoan civilization of Crete. Using architectural techniques from Knossos, they constructed high-walled castles at Mycenae and Tiryns. They also obtained the idea of a written language from Crete. For many years, the relations between the two societies were peaceful, but about 1450 b. c.e., the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and occupied the palace at Knossos. After remaining in Crete for some fifty years, they took over the Minoans’ foreign trade and established trading colonies in the Aegean Sea and on the Asian coast, including Miletus.
The period from 1400 to 1250 b. c.e. was the heyday of Mycenaean civilization. These years were immortalized in Homer’s epic poems, written
Realistic gold masks like this one were found covering the faces of the bodies in graves at Mycenae.
More than four hundred years later. Scholars disagree about whether Homer, who had to depend on oral traditions, possessed much accurate information about particular events and customs. Although Homer’s purpose was not to record the factual events of history, he apparently preserved memories of Mycenaean mythology and cultural values, including the notion of a warrior code of honor and bravery.
The decline of the Mycenaean civilization began during the thirteenth century b. c.e., probably the result of multiple causes. Perhaps the most basic factor was internal rivalry and civil conflict. In addition, upheavals in Asia Minor, especially the decline of the Hittite kingdom, made it more difficult to obtain raw materials from the eastern trade routes. As the Myce-naeans became less prosperous, they presented an invitation to invaders from the so-called Sea Peoples. Archaeological research reveals that the cities of Mycenae, Thebes, and Pylos suffered a succession of devastating military defeats in the years after about 1250 b. c.e.
The Mycenaeans, therefore, were in a condition of exhaustion and depopulation when the Dorians invaded the Greek mainland about 1100 b. c.e. These invasions marked the demise of Mycenaean civilization, the end of its undertaking of large building projects, its use of written records, and its thriving commerce. The various peoples of the region entered a period that historians call the Dark Age of Greece, during which the Aegean world returned to a more primitive level of culture.
Written Language The written script used by the Mycenaeans is known as Linear B, a modified version of the Minoan Linear A system adapted for writing in the Greek language. Most of the signs of Linear B stand for vowels and syllables, but there are also pictorial symbols representing animals and many objects. Scholars generally agree that the language is an archaic dialect of Greek, but with many ambiguities. The script was finally deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris with the assistance of John Chadwick.
The largest collection of tablets written in Linear B comes from Pylos, where numerous tablets of unbaked clay survived because the building that housed them was burned. The Pylos tablets consist of administrative and business records. Because the documents were written just before a destruction of the palace, they provide a glimpse into how the Mycenaeans prepared for an emergency. It is fairly certain that Linear B was never used for recording poetry or other forms of creative literature.
Religion Evidence suggests that the origins of classical Greek religion may lie in the Mycenaean period. The Linear B texts, for example, present Zeus as the dominant deity, and they also appear to mention a number of other familiar Olympian deities. Sacred buildings for religious rituals have been discovered on the acropolis of Mycenae. Most scholars now agree that the deities and the cultic practices of the Mycenaeans were quite different from those of the Minoans.
Mycenaean priests and priestesses made offerings of agricultural products to the recognized deities, and less frequently, they conducted sacrifices of sheep, cattle, and pigs. Both legends and Linear B texts indicate that the Mycenaeans practiced human sacrifices, but they probably performed these sacrifices only in emergency situations. One Pylos tablet mentioned that thirteen gold objects and eight humans had been offered to the deities.
Shaft Graves and Tombs From 1874 to 1876, Schliemann discovered six large pits in Mycenae that served as royal graves, dated at about the sixteenth century b. c.e. Several of the skeletons were adorned with beautiful and realistic face masks hammered out of gold. The graves also contained a variety of jewelry, weapons, and tools made of gold, silver, and bronze. One famous dagger contained a vivid scene of a lion hunt inlaid on the blade. The large number of weapons in the graves testifies to the important role of warfare in Mycenaean culture.
Members of the nobility were buried in underground beehive-shaped tombs, called tholoi, throughout the Mycenaean region. Some of these vaulted tombs were quite large. The most impressive structure, the Treasury of Atreus, measures forty-eight feet (fifteen meters) in diameter and forty-four feet (thirteen meters) high. Many of the tombs give indications that dead leaders and warriors were venerated, probably anticipating the hero cults that later became important. Unfortunately, most of the contents of the tombs were robbed in antiquity.
Art and Architecture The Mycenaeans often decorated their buildings and tombs with relief sculpture. A large lion gate at the entrance to the citadel at Mycenae is especially impressive. Craftspeople also carved small realistic statues out of stone and ivory. The beautifully decorated pottery of the Mycenaeans was highly prized throughout the Mediterranean world.
The fresco decorations on Mycenaean palaces were greatly influenced by Minoan styles.
The palaces were usually built around a large hall with a vestibule and central hearth. In contrast to Minoan palaces, there were no open central courts, perhaps because the Mycenaeans had a cooler climate. They constructed fortified walls, bridges, and tombs out of megalithic blocks, with individual blocks sometimes weighing as much as a hundred tons (ninety metric tons). The blocks were not joined by mortar. The Mycenaeans never constructed arches but used huge lintels, often rounded at the top, to support the weight above entrances and windows. Mycenae obtained its water supply from an impressive cistern with steps leading forty feet (twelve meters) underground.
Social Classes Although the evidence concerning classes is limited, it appears that the Mycenaeans had authoritarian rulers and that their society was stratified into relatively rigid social classes. A small number of elite warriors constituted a military aristocracy, and all male citizens were expected to render military service. The middle class was made up of farmers and skilled craftspeople. The land system was both communal and privately owned, with a wealthy elite owning large estates. The bulk of the population consisted of unskilled laborers. The Pylos tablets suggest that slavery was a familiar institution, mostly consisting of female slaves.
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Like other peoples of the Mediterranean, the Mycenaeans produced a diversity of agricultural products. The primary grain crops were barley and wheat. In addition, farmers grew olives, figs, grapes, and spices such as cumin and coriander. They also grew flax for making linen and cords. They had domesticated oxen for plowing, sheep for wool, and a small breed of horses for pulling light wagons and chariots. Other domesticated animals included pigs and goats. With the relatively dense population that existed during the height of Mycenaean civilization, their need for additional supplies of food, especially during periods of drought, was an important motivation for trade and specialization of labor.
Industry and Commerce The Mycenaeans made many objects out of bronze and also worked with gold and silver. With their large number of smiths, they produced a surplus of such products for export. They had few natural resources and had to import metallic ores from either Asia Minor, Egypt, or Europe. Their pottery has been found all over the eastern half of the Mediterranean and as far west as Italy. In addition, the Mycenaeans were known for their luxurious furniture, with tables and chairs inlaid with gold, ivory, and blue glass. Other exports included jewelry, ornamented textiles, perfumes, and blue glass.
Surviving records suggest that the palace strictly regulated commerce. It is thought that the merchants did not constitute an important social class. A lack of coinage or another standard medium of exchange hindered the growth of trade.
Warfare The Mycenaeans had to maintain constant vigilance against the threat of external invaders. Homer’s description of felt helmets covered by rows of small plates of boar’s tusks has been confirmed in art and archaeological discoveries. In the later Mycenaean period, these helmets were replaced by stronger ones made of bronze. One full suit of bronze armor has been discovered at Dendra, but such heavy armor was probably rare. Soldiers were usually equipped with long throwing spears, short two-edged swords, daggers, shields, and sometimes bows. When roads were available, elite soldiers traveled in light, two-wheeled chariots pulled by two horses.
From the 1300’s, many important locations such as Mycenae and Gla had imposing stone fortifications, and most cities had at least small walled citadels, usually in a place with a secure supply of water. Mycenaean art depicts the use of warships propelled by oars and of merchant ships that relied on sails.
Current Views Given the limited number of written records, specialists in Mycenaean history are cautious about making generalizations. Although historians of the nineteenth century tended to assume the uniqueness of the early Greek-speaking peoples, contemporary historians tend to focus on the cultural influences coming from Crete, Egypt, and even western Asia. Contemporary historians also tend to minimize the degree of continuity between the Mycenaean age and later Greek accomplishments. Although cultural practices in art, architecture, and religion apparently survived until Homer’s day, no firm evidence exists that the Mycenaeans made any direct contribution to the later growth of Greek philosophy, literature, or science. Contemporary historians disagree about the reasons for the fall of Mycenaean civilization, but there is a consensus that the Dorian invasions were only one of many factors.
Further Reading
Castleden, Rodney. Mycenaeans. New York: Routledge, 2005.
Chadwick, John. The Mycenaean World. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
Higgins, Reynolds, and Lyvia Morgan. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Mylonas, George E. Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1966.
Palmer, L. R. The Interpretation of Mycenaean Greek Texts. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Taylor, Lord William. The Mycenaeans. Rev. ed. London: Thames and Hudson, 1999.
Wardle, K. A., and Diane Wardle. The Mycenaean World: Cities of Legends. Bristol, England: Bristol Classic Press, 1998.
Thomas T. Lewis
See also: Agriculture and Animal Husbandry; Archaic Greece; Art and Architecture; Classical Greece; Crete; Daily Life and Customs; Death and Burial; Dorian Invasion of Greece; Hellenistic Greece; Homer; Language and Dialects; Linear B; Mycenae, Palace of; Religion and Ritual; Trade, Commerce, and Colonization; Troy; Weapons.
World History
