(c. 150-203? C. E.) Christian theologian from the Egyptian community
Ranked with origen as a Church Father, Clement called himself an Athenian and a pagan by birth. He came to Alexandria, enrolling in the famous Catechetical School and studying under Pantaenus, whom he succeeded in 190. As the head of the school, Clement authored several notable works. In Protrepticus (Exhortation to the Greeks), he argued the natural attraction and superiority of Christianity. Paidogogus observed the many facets of Christian doctrine. Stromateis was concerned with the philosophical basis of Christian intellectual thought. He opposed pagan beliefs but accepted them as a logical progression toward the enlightenment of Christ. in Stromateis he wrote that philosophy to the Greeks prepared them for Christianity, while the Jews were prepared by the law. Paganism as part of a process could be tolerated if, in its own cultivated manner, it accepted Christ as the true, final, enlightened vision of cosmic order. in 202, Clemens left Alexandria because of the persecutions conducted by Septimius Severus. He lived out his days in Palestine. His successor in Alexandria as the head of the Catechetical School was origen.
Clement I (Clement of Rome) (d. 97 c. e.) Christian saint and pope
The third successor to St. Peter as bishop of Rome, Clement served as pope from c. 88 to 97 c. e. In official lists, he is the successor to St. Anacletus (r. 76-88), although according to both Tertullian and St. Jerome, he was the immediate follower of St. Peter and was consecrated by him. Clement was possibly a onetime slave in the household of Titus Flavius Clemens, the cousin of Emperor Domitian. origen and others identified him with the Clement mentioned by St. Paul: “. . . they have labored side by side with me in the gospel together with Clement and the rest of my fellow workers, whose names are in the book of life” (Phil. 4:3). other stories about his life—such as his banishment to Crimea and martyrdom by having been thrown into the sea with an anchor tied around his neck—are unreliable. He was the subject of numerous legends and the reputed author of a considerable body of work, the so-called Clementine Literature. This apocrypha includes the Second Epistle of Clement, Apostolic Constitutions, Homilies, Recognitions, the Apocalypse of Clement, and two Epistles to Virgins. He was most likely the author of the very notable First Epistle of
Clement, considered the most important church document, outside of the New Testament and the Didache, of the first century
Written around 96, the epistle was addressed to the Christians of Corinth, where there had been severe strife in the community and several presbyters had been deposed. Clement calls upon the Corinthians to repent, to reinstate the presbyters, and to accept their commands, emphasizing that the Apostles were the ones who established the order of succession in the church by appointing bishops and deacons. He then stresses the role of these clergy in the offering of gifts, meaning the Eucharist. Much read and deeply respected in the early church, the First Epistle of Clement was publicly proclaimed at Corinth with the Scriptures and was even combined with or added to the New Testament. It provides historians an excellent picture of the conditions in the church during this era, especially in Rome.
Cleopatra (d. 30 b. c.e.) Last queen of Egypt (ruling 51-30 b. c.e)
Of Macedonian descent, Cleopatra was the eldest daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes. When growing up in the palace of Alexandria, she learned court intrigue and also developed a loathing for her ambitious brother Ptolemy. In 51 B. C.E., Auletes died, leaving Cleopatra and Ptolemy (now Ptolemy XIII) as corulers of the kingdom of EGYPT. Cleopatra was 17 years old. A feud started instantly, and with the aid of his mercenary advisers, Ptolemy expelled Cleopatra from the throne. He relied upon such men as Pothinus and Achillas to assume the burden of administration. Cleopatra, in turn, raised an army to counter the forces of Achillas and was about to battle Ptolemy when Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria in October of 48 B. C.E. The head of POMPEY was delivered to Caesar as a gift from Ptolemy, an act that offended the Romans and even Caesar, who had been Pompey’s father-in-law. Caesar declared his intention to settle Egyptian affairs as the official representative of Rome on the scene. After charming Caesar, Cleopatra was installed on the throne and, after Ptolemy Xlll’s death, she elevated her youngest brother, Ptolemy XIV, as her royal consort. But she was the true power in Egypt, and, supported by Caesar, bore him a son, Caesarion (see Ptolemy caesar). Cleopatra subsequently traveled to Rome and stayed there until 44 B. C.E. No longer welcome after Caesar’s assassination, she returned to Egypt. In 41 b. c.e. she met Marc Antony in Cilicia, and the two became lovers.
Her status and that of her country grew in the East as Antony became centered more and more on his possessions there. In Rome, Octavian (Augustus) anticipated civil war, starting propaganda campaigns against the couple on the Nile. Their open alliance gave him more than enough scandalous material, and in 31 the conflict erupted for control of the Roman world. Antony was financed by Cleopatra but even with such support could
A relief of Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (Hulton/GettyArchive)
Not win the battle of actium. The queen’s premature retreat from the battle had an impact on the loss. Cleopatra sailed to Alexandria, where Antony joined her. Trying to salvage her realm and Antony’s life, she negotiated with Octavian to no avail. Antony killed himself. After failing to win Octavian’s affection, Cleopatra joined her lover in one of the most celebrated suicides in history. She died at the age of 39; her desires and ambitions proved the undoing of Marc Antony and ensured the supremacy of Augustus. With her death the line of the
Ptolemies came to an end. Egypt was seized and became just another Roman province.
Client states Regions used by the Roman Empire as territorial buffers along the troubled frontiers, or as pawns in the destruction of powerful enemy kingdoms. Most of these client states reflected Roman policy, and most of the domains were controlled by old dynasties or by tribes newly arrived in an area. Others were friends or servants to the emperors. This was especially true in the days of the early empire, when Augustus left intact many of Marc Antony’s clients or awarded them to his own associates. Clients received more than the blessing of Rome. They probably did not have to pay taxes, could depend upon the Roman legions for support in the event of an attack, and could rule domestic affairs as they pleased. Very often, however, such kingdoms were corrupt, dynastically exhausted, and destined for annexation.
An administrator could be named to watch over their affairs, as was the case with the governor of Syria and the small domains of Cilicia. Furthermore, the foreign policy of the emperors had to be followed, because failure to comply meant direct intervention. The kings of the client states thus traveled a narrow road, placating their own national concerns of religion, politics, and social organization, while holding fast against an insane Roman emperor or a demanding, long-term strategic policy. Few client states survived.
In the eastern regions and provinces were found most of the ancient dynastic kingdoms. They had been reorganized in the era of the Republic and were maintained by both Antony and Augustus. Some, such as Armenia and Armenia Minor, were constantly receiving new rulers from Parthia or Rome—as the previous ruler was murdered, driven out or, rarely, died of natural causes. These states were:
In Africa, Egypt could be considered a client state, under Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra, but its status was always special to Rome, given its prime strategic location and its grain exports. After 30 b. c.e. it was a province. Mauretania became a Roman province after Caligula murdered the dynasty of Juba in 40-41 C. E.
Numidia was seized by Augustus and incorporated into Africa.
In the West, with the exception of the British kings of the Brigantes and the Iceni, and Thrace, the allies of Rome were most often barbarian peoples and used against a more powerful frontier threat. The Cherusci, for example, and the Hermunduri, fought as counterweights to the Chatti.
See individual entries for complete details about each kingdom or group.
Clodia (b. c. 94 b. c.e.) Famous sister of P. Clodius Pulcher
Known as one of the most beautiful women in Rome, Clodia was unhappily married to Metellus Celer in 60 B. C.E. and became a widow one year later. She was possibly involved with the poet Catullus, in an affair that became well known in the city Entranced by her wit and skills in love, Catullus devoted most of his passionate poetry to her charms. Their relationship seems to have lasted from 61 to 58 b. c.e., despite his unsuccessful attempts at freeing himself of her during that time. In his poems, Catullus names Clodia as “Lesbia.” Catullus was replaced in her affections by the friend of Cicero, caelius RUFUS. He surrendered himself to her circle but grew distant and was taken to court by Clodia in 56 b. c.e. Defended by Cicero, he was acquitted, but a lasting enmity developed between Clodia and Cicero as a result. The writer and statesman countercharged her with incest and the murder of her husband.
Clodius Albinus, Decimus (d. 197 c. e.) Governor of Britain and a leading figure in the civil war of 193 Albinus was from wealthy background and made a name for himself in Germany (see Germania), under the command of Commodus, and in Dacia, before assuming his first post in Britain. The unrest in Rome, the result of the murder of Emperor Pertinax by the Praetorian Guard in 193 and the subsequent auctioning off of the empire to Didius Julianus, compelled Albinus to rise up against the infamous deeds.
Upon assuming the title of emperor, Severus tried to protect his rear while engaged against the claimant Pescennius Niger in the East; he offered Albinus the post of Caesar, the second highest office in the empire. Severus routed Niger at Issus, while Albinus held his own forces in check. His legions clamored for Albinus to take the title, while the Senate approved of his connections to Rome. In 196, at the head of an army, Albinus crossed into Gaul to rally the support of the German legions. He failed and was crushed by Severus at Lugdunum in 197, committing suicide. His followers in Rome followed him into early graves.
Clodius Fulcher, Publius (d. 52 b. c.e.) Violent and ambitious figure in the final years of the Republic Clodius achieved legendary status in 62 b. c.e. by profaning the mysteries being held in the home of Julius Caesar for the BONA DEA. Forbidden to males, Clodius dressed as a woman and violated the festival. Brought to trial, he provided an alibi that Cicero refuted by stating on the witness stand that Clodius had been with him for only three hours on the night in question. As Clodius held the rank of quaestor at the time of the trial, he was able to bribe the judges. Still he never forgave Cicero, and the two of them became the most vicious enemies of the period. It was a possibility that his arranged adoption into a Plebeian family formed part of an elaborate plot against Cicero. Using this new position, he became a powerful tribune of the plebs in 58 b. c.e., throwing his lot in with the first triumvirate members, Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar.
With their help he persecuted Cicero and Caesar’s enemy, Cato Uticensis. In 58, both of these politicians were exiled from Rome, and Clodius proceeded to extend his own influence over the city and the assemblies. Despite gaining an aedileship in 56, Clodius was on the decline. He could not prevent the return of Cicero, and his decision to intimidate Pompey proved fatal. His gangs roamed the streets to enforce his will, and in 57 he used these tactics on Pompey but found a foe with the resources to counterattack. Pompey summoned Annius MILO and turned him loose on Clodius. The resulting struggle was a physical and legal bloodbath. Squads of roaming thugs inflicted injury on one another while the two officials sparred in the courts. In 52, Clodius ran for the praetorship and Milo for the consulship. A fierce battle ensued on January 20, 52, on the Appian Way. Clodius died, and his supporters erupted as a result. They burned the house of the Senate and caused such civil strife that Pompey was appointed sole consul.
Clothing Textile production, aimed primarily at the manufacture of cloth for use in clothing, bags, rugs, and other needed fabrics, was one of the most important industries in all of the Roman provinces. Roman clothing was expensive for both rich and poor owing to the limitations that existed in raw materials and also because of the length of time required to make even one roll of cloth.
The Romans used wool, flax, cotton, and cultivated silk. Wool was sheared using iron shears and purified in a manner of combing that remained commonly accepted until modern times—the flat iron comb. Flax was harvested from flax plants and retted by soaking either in running or stale water for about three weeks. Other fibers included goat hair and rabbit hair.
Silk was imported from Asia, principally cultivated silk from China and wild silk from India. The use of silk increased in Roman territories with the spread of trade routes and emerged as a significant drain on the imperial economy through the loss of Roman money flowing out of the empire to China and India.
Associated textile industries to fiber cultivation were spinning and weaving, both largely cottage industries. Romans used the spindle and distaff for spinning, and weaving was dome chiefly by the vertical loom.
For dyeing and fulling, it was common to use vegetable dyes. Other dyes were produced from shellfish and lichens. As many dyes required a mordant, dyers would treat pre-dyed fabrics with iron salts or alum. To complete cloth manufacturing, fullers placed the cloth in a vat or tub with decayed urine or fuller’s earth (alkaline clay). Other finishing, touches included raising and cropping the nap of some fabrics.
The dress of Romans differed depending upon the social class of the wearer, but there were several common elements that applied nearly to everyone. The principal basic unit of attire was the tunic (the tunica), which was worn by both Plebeians and Patricians. In general, the tunic was a simple shift, tied at the waist, and with either a short sleeve or no sleeve at all. The tunic for men was cut to a little below the knees. It was tied at the waist by a rope or a belt.
Women also wore a tunica, adapted from the Greek chiton. Like their male counterparts, they wore a tunica that was usually knee-length, but over this they wore a stola, which was a kind of dress that went from the neck to the feet or ankles. It had a high waist, was fastened at the shoulders, and often had careful and attractive pleating. It also had a border around the neck. As stitching was often poor owing to the low qualities of needles and thread, the typical Roman relied on fibulae, safety pins, to fasten outer clothing and even to hold together some of their undergarments. The stolae were usually white, brown, or gray. It became fashionable for wealthy Roman women to buy stolae of very bright colors, thanks to a healthy application of vegetable dyes. To complete the basic dress, a woman might wear a shawl, called a palla. The palla was wrapped around the shoulders and arm, or it could be draped over the head when a woman went out, as was the custom.
For men, a tunica with long sleeves, such as the one Caesar often adopted, was considered effeminate. Men also did not wear long, hemmed tunicae. In cold weather, it was the practice to put on three or four tunics. For common people, including slaves, herdsmen, and laborers, the tunica was made of less expensive cloth, usually dark in color and coarse. The tunic worn by Patricians was made from white wool or linen and decorated with stripes to indicate social position. Senators wore a tunica with a wide purple stripe, while members of the Equites wore a tunica with a thinner purple stripe. This was then complemented by the TOGAS they wore, which were also adorned with similar stripes. Military tunics were normally shorter than those worn by civilians to provide greater freedom of movement. The tunica evolved from a sleeveless or short-sleeved garment into a long-sleeved shirt with ornamentation. Termed the dalmatic, it became a common element in subsequent centuries in the vestments of the Christian Church. The stole likewise became a vestment for the clergy.
The principal heavier garment of the Roman upper class was famed toga. So ubiquitous did the toga become among the upper classes that it was possible to tell the status of a person by his toga. Members of the lower class normally wore a cloak as their chief outer garment.
For many centuries, some of the most unacceptable of all fashions were trousers. Woolen trousers (braca) were considered suitable only for the barbarians beyond the frontiers of the empire. As late as 397 C. E., Emperor Honorius proclaimed laws that made it a crime for any Roman to wear trousers within the Eternal City. Only soldiers, who used trousers in extremely cold climates and for cavalry, were excepted. Leather breeches were adopted by the Equites to facilitate their hard riding in the field.
When Romans needed heavier clothing than the toga, they had a number of choices, including the paenula, a cloak made from thick wool, although laborers and hunters in cold climates adopted a leather version; the lacerna, a light hooded cloak often popular with wealthy young Romans, including Marc Antony, who earned a rebuke from Cicero for wearing a lacerna instead of a toga; the cucullus, a short cape with a hood; and the paludamentum, an ornate version of the cucullus that could be worn only by generals.
The Romans’ undergarments are less well known than their other garments, owing to the scarcity of direct references in writings. It is believed that Roman men wore a form of loincloth. Women probably wore a similar loincloth, with a band of soft leather that covered the breasts. It is likely that Romans also wore types of socks and stockings for additional warmth.
Children wore clothing that was similar in most respects to their parents’. Children of patricians varied their attire depending on their age, especially with regard to the toga. For most of their childhood, both boys and girls wore the toga praetexta, a toga decorated with a distinctive purple stripe. On reaching maturity, boys were granted the toga virilis, and girls were permitted to wear the stola, the dress of a woman. Children of the middle classes wore a white toga and lower-class children a tunic with cloaks. However, in the later empire children of these less powerful classes started adopting the toga prae-texta as well. The adoption of the toga virilis was marked with celebration and ceremony. For girls, there was often a ceremony in which her toys and her toga were laid aside as things of the past.
Like the toga, footwear was a means of displaying the social status of the wearer. Nearly all males wore sandals, save for those in military service. Variations of sandals were the carbatina, solea, and soccus. Members of the patrician class wore red sandals. Senators wore brown sandals, with black straps wound up the leg to mid-calf, where the straps were tied. To make their status plain, consuls wore white shoes. Women wore a closed shoe, a calceus, that was tied by laces. They were decorated in various colors, including white, yellow, or green.
Soldiers in the legions most often wore the caliga, a heavy sandal with a strong upper leather secured by thongs and a hobnail leather sole. This was the shoe that was used by the legions to march across the Roman world. For difficult terrains and especially colder climes, the soldiers were permitted to wear hose and leather boots. This was an adaptation made through contact with barbarian tribes, since boots and shoes, some made of wood, proved useful for battle.
Cleaning clothes at home was difficult because the typical Roman could not afford the proper cleaning equipment and was not able to use the requisite large amounts of water. It fell to the fullers to perform the vital task of cleaning clothes for the upper classes, a task documented in wall paintings, which show fullers treading clothes in water with their feet. The fuller placed clothes in large vats and marched and trod on them to expel dirt and grime. Finer woolens were bleached in a process using burning sulfur and urine from the public lavatories. This work was hazardous to the respiratory systems of the fullers, as well as the cause of assorted skin diseases from constant contact with chemicals and human waste. After treatment, the cloth was washed once more and brushed with a comb, sometimes made of the skins of hedgehogs. The nap was raised and then trimmed with shears, with the fibers snipped away used to stuff pillows and cushions. A final treatment involved a last washing with water, although fullers regularly applied the water by taking a swig of water and spitting it on the fabric.
Suggested Readings: Adkins, Lesley and Roy Adkins. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Facts On File, 1994; Balsdon, J. P V D. Life and Leisure in Ancient
Rome. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969; -. Roman
Women: Their History and Habits. London: Bodley Head, 1962; Boren, Henry C. Roman Society: A Social, Economic, and Cultural History. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1977; Brown, Peter R. L. Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982; Carcopino, Jerome. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1968; Cowell, F R. Life in Ancient Rome. New York: G. P Putnam’s Sons, 1961; Dupont, Florence. Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Translated by Christopher Woodall. Oxford, U. K.: Blackwell Publishers, 1992; Houston, M. G. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Costume and Decoration. London: Adam & Charles Black, 1947; Lindsay, Jack. Daily Life in Roman Egypt. London: F Muller, 1963; Potter, D. S., and D. J. Mattingly, eds. Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 1999; Sitwell, Nigel H. The World the Romans Knew. London: H. Hamilton, 1984; Wilson, L. M. The Roman Toga. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1924.
Cogidubnus, Tiberius Claudius (fl. first century C. E.) King of the Britons, and a client of Rome in Britain Cogidubnus surrendered voluntarily after the fall of the Catuvellauni at Roman hands in 43 c. E. He subsequently received the blessings of Claudius to rule his own territory with the added title of rex.
In 47 C. E., when the governor, Ostorius Scapula, encountered opposition from the local tribes for incursions, Cogidubnus chose to remain loyal. Scapula rewarded him with several additions of territory. However, his kingdom was eventually annexed as part of the Roman province of Britannia.
Cohort See legions.
Coinage Basis of a monetary system that existed for centuries and served as a unifying element of imperial life. The coins surviving in modern times serve as important sources of information about the eras in which they were minted. Much remains unclear, however, and new discoveries yield new questions. It is not possible to examine here every aspect of Roman coinage, but a general analysis will examine the place of the coins in Roman history, their types, and the Roman mints.
Under the Republic, the Senate oversaw the nation’s coinage, and the mint at Rome turned out its monetary needs. The years of civil war, however, put an end to senatorial control. Generals and governors throughout the provinces used the smaller mints at their disposal to strike enough money to pay troops and conduct campaigns. Coinage, once depicting Roma and a sturdy ship, now displayed references to personal achievements, as in the case of pompey the great, or portraits of leaders, as in the case of Julius CAESAR. Inflation was rampant in the provinces and in Rome, and leaders in widely separated regions produced their own coins. As a result, the great mint in Rome was closed in 40 b. c.e. After winning the battle of Actium, Augustus returned to Rome to assume imperial powers in 31 b. c.e.
Augustus first stabilized the coinage by retaining the main coin types: the aureus, denarius, sestertius, and
Early imperial coins. (Courtesy Warren Esty)
Others. He then established across the empire numerous imperial and local mints, all to be strictly controlled. From 19 to 12 b. c.e. the mint at Rome was reopened and struck the gold and silver coins that were dispersed to the provinces. The Roman mint was later abandoned, for some reason, and Augustus chose a new site for the operation in Lugdunum (Lyons). Over the next years in his reign (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.), and indeed throughout all of Tiberius’s era (14 B. C.E.-37 C. E.), the gold and much of the silver coinage came from Lugdunum. Other silver coins were struck in the East or in special mints. Bronze tokens, used everywhere, were the responsibility of smaller, provincial mints, and were struck with the letters “S. C.,” for SENATUS CONSULTUM, a recognition by the emperor of the Senate’s historical role in coinage and an example of Augustus’s desire to work with this legislative body for the good of Rome.
A change was made under gaius Caligula. Sometime between 37 and 41 C. E., the main coining operation returned from Lugdunum to Rome. Claudius, most likely, kept the mint at Rome, and Nero followed suit. The young emperor, however, decided that the Senate should be granted a say in the striking of gold and silver. The letters “EX S. C.” appeared on coins for a time, but the senatorial privilege was revoked in 64, reviving Lugdunum’s mint—which burned down later that same year.
Following the civil war of 69 C. E., the new regime of the FLAVIANS, especially Vespasian, took steps to reinstate Rome’s lost grandeur and supremacy. Provincial mints were severely limited as a result, and for the next century only the silver mints in the East could claim any kind of independence; in Trajan’s reign they were combined under one roof in Cappadocia. Emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and, presumably, Commodus, all followed the tradition of the Roman monetary dominance.
New civil wars from 193 to 197 allowed the provinces at long last to strike coinage of all types. Pescennius Niger, a rival for the throne, poured out money from the East and possibly from Byzantium (Constantinople). The eventual victor for the throne, Septimius Severus, used provincial mints as well, in Laodicea, perhaps in Emesa and possibly in Antioch. When he became emperor he chose to continue this new policy. Henceforth, Roman coins were joined by those struck elsewhere.
The beginning of the third century witnessed a deterioration of the value of money, the near collapse of the frontiers, a terrible financial crisis and rampant inflation. Debasement reduced the value of several coins, especially the denarius. This silver denomination dropped drastically so that by the time Caracalla came to the throne in 211, it had a value of some 5% of its original. To offset such reductions, Caracalla issued a new coin, the Antoninianus, worth 11/2 or two denarii. The Antonini-anus was dropped by Severus Alexander but restored by Balbinus and Pupienus, and was used until the great reforms of Diocletian as the replacement of the denarius.
Knowledge of late third century coinage is very limited because of the chaos of the era. Sometime between 270 and 275, Aurelian withdrew all existing currency and struck new models. His two copper-based silver coins, while serving his immediate needs, were of dubious value. The empire was faced with a multitude of mints, issuing badly debased coins. Reforms were needed, not only in financial matters, but also in government and in administration.
In 284, Diocletian became emperor and labored to stabilize the Roman world. Around 293 or 294, he began to reorganize the coinage types. Within two years the old debased currency had been replaced by gold aurei and by silver, copper, and other, lighter tokens. only those mints specifically chosen for imperial service struck coins of legal tender. These mints, some 15 in all (see page 134), ranged across the provinces and marked their coins to show their source of origin. All smaller mints on the local or provincial level were closed, including those of the usurpers Carausius and Allectus in Britain.
The system of weight and value adopted by Diocletian remains a source of some doubt, as are the actions of his eventual successor, Constantine. Aureus (gold) coins at the time were very pure, and none more so than the new gold piece, the solidus. The solidus became the primary means of paying taxes, and it was traded in for other minor coins, the pecunia. Their metallic composition remains a mystery. Little silver was minted for a time, until around 330. The bronze coins lost much of their value during the reign of Constantine, although the basic systems remained intact for some years.
Constantius II, circa 348, issued two new coins of varying value: the miliarense and the centenionalis. The former was probably silver or part silver, and the latter could have been a form of denarius. Julian, the emperor from 355 to 363, ordered another series of reforms. But the system established by Diocletian and Constantine remained relatively intact until the middle of the fifth century.
With the rise of Constantinople as capital of the Eastern Empire, the minting of coins was secure, especially in comparison to the mints of the Western Empire, which suffered conquest, destruction, or seizure by the barbarians dominating Germany, Gaul, and spain. In time only the mints of the Italian districts and of Rome were still functioning. Henceforth, the barbarian peoples would develop their own systems of money.
The coins of the Republic most often contained phrases or even small pictures. Later, generals placed small commemoratives upon them, and Julius Caesar even adorned his coinage with the picture of a man. Under Augustus, the propaganda of the empire was furthered by the currency. The Pax Romana was celebrated, as was the magnificence of the emperor and his state.
Middle imperial coins. (Courtesy Warren Esty)
Late imperial coins. (Courtesy Warren Esty)
All coinage could be classified into several artistic types. Some were designed to honor the gods, such as those minted at Lugdunum. Others displayed events, battles, campaigns, or building programs. Commemorative coins honored individuals, groups (such as the medals struck by Claudius for his Praetorian Guard around 41 c. e.) and events. For the most part, the coins stressed the rulers themselves. Every emperor wanted to display his own likeness or those of his wife, mother, or other relative.
This aspect of the currency provides a wealth of historical information, establishing chronologies and tracing the internal affairs of the empire. For example, Nero began his reign with coins prominently displaying his mother Agrippina the Younger. As his reign progressed her portrait ceased to appear; her fortunes followed suit.
World History
