While the population of the city appears to have been small in the Seleucid period, its fortifications, the citadel palace, the redoubt palace, the agora and the grid-pattern layout of the city were established by the time of the Parthian occupation.46 The Parthian period saw the city assume what Leriche calls ‘its essential aspect’.47 This is represented most vividly in two significant phases of temple construction during the Parthian period. Both phases reflect the city’s growing prosperity from trade and the productive nature of the territory on the banks of the Euphrates that it was responsible for administering.
The construction of temples is observed from the second half of the first century BC to the middle of the first century AD and again in the middle of the second century AD. The Temple of Artemis was ‘radically rebuilt’ from 40 to 32 BC and the temple of Zeus Megistos underwent a major reconstruction at about the same time.48 In addition to this a small temple was built outside the walls by two Palmyrenes in 33/32BC.49 The first half of the first century AD saw a number of important temples constructed in their first phases at Dura Europos. These were the temples of Azzanathkona, Zeus Kyrios, Atargatis, Bel (Palmyrene Gods) and Aphlad.50 The middle of the second century saw the construction of the temples of Zeus Theos, the Gadde and Adonis.51
The Temple of Artemis, having undergone its transformation from 40 to 32 BC, was a major civic shrine from the latter half of the first century BC and well into the Roman period.52 The temple included what has been called a ‘chapel’ to Aphrodite from this same period, and its earliest inscription is a dedication by the strategos of the city.53 The ongoing importance of the temple is shown in the Roman period with dedications made in it to the imperial family by the epistates of the city and by members of the boule in the third century AD.54 There were many inscriptions from this temple dating from the late first century BC to the middle of the second century AD, and they indicate its use almost exclusively by people with Greek names.55
The Temple of Zeus Megistos, which underwent a more extensive renovation than the Temple of Artemis at approximately the same time, was further modified in varying degrees until the last years of Parthian rule and the beginning of Roman rule when another major reconstruction was undertaken.56 An inscription of AD 169/170, which dedicated sections of the renovation, shows that Zeus Megistos was still worshipped as the cult figure. Fragments of the cult statue, which appears to date to this period, indicate that Baalshamin, probably the Palmyrene equivalent of Zeus Megistos, was also worshipped in this temple.57 Sculpted reliefs of the camel god Arsu were also found, as were many sculpted fragments of Hera-cles.58 It is likely that the honouring of Baalshamin, Arsu and Heracles was a part of the cult activity in the temple for some time before its renovation
Figure 4.7 Relief sculpture of the camel god Arsu. From M. I. Rostovtzeff, A.
Bellinger, C. Hopkins and C. B. Welles, eds, The Excavations at Dura Europos: Preliminary Report of the Seventh and Eighth Seasons: 1933-1934 and 1934-1935, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936, plate XXXI, 2.
In the late Parthian/early Roman period. The significance of this temple as a place of worship of Palmyrene gods is discussed on pp. 110-11.
The Temple of Zeus Theos, which was erected by 120/121, has been interpreted as a temple to an Iranian/Parthian god.59 There is little evidence of significant addition or rebuilding of the temple after this date. It was speculated that the temple was erected at the expense of a wealthy Durene individual, and it is claimed that it was used by ‘a relatively restricted group of Dura citizens, members of the aristocracy devoted to a particular form of Zeus’.60
A number of temples constructed at Dura in the Parthian period were to deities of a local Syrian origin. The temples of Atargatis, Azzanathkona and Aphlad are examples. The Temple of Atargatis appears to have been closely connected with the Temple of Artemis.61 The earliest inscription found in the temple dates to ad31/32, but there is some evidence for an enlargement of the temple some two decades later. A ‘chapel’ was added in ad91/92 and the temple was still in use well into the Roman
Figure 4.8 Relief sculpture of the goddess Azzanathkona (seated). From M. I. Ros-tovtzeff, ed., The Excavations at Dura Europos: Preliminary Report of the Fifth Season, 1931-1932, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934, plate XIV.
Figure 4.9 Relief of the Anathan god Aphlad from Dura Europos. From M. I. Ros-tovtzeff, ed., The Excavations at Dura Europos: Freliminary Report of the Fifth Season, 1931-1932, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934, plate XIII.
Period.62 There is a strong suggestion that the cult figures of Atargatis and Hadad in this temple were modelled on the images of Atargatis at her temple in Hierapolis, while dedications to other Semitic gods, some otherwise unknown, were also found in the temple.63
The Temple of Azzanathkona was constructed by ad 12/13 and also shows evidence of a number of enlargements and modifications up to a few years before the Roman occupation of the city.64 The goddess Azzanathkona is only attested at Dura Europos, and on the basis of an inscription related to the addition of rooms in ad161 she was identified with Artemis.65 It is thought that Azzanathkona was originally a deity from Anatha, given the second element of her name.66 The dedicatory inscriptions and graffiti found in the temple indicate that a mixture of people with Greek and Semitic names worshipped there.67
Finally, the Temple of Aphlad was dedicated in ad 54 by an association of traders from Anatha.68 Aphlad was described as a god of Anatha and like Azzanathkona his temple at Dura is the only known example to have survived. The 11 men of the association referred to in the inscription were representatives of six families and all had Semitic names. Downey points out that the graffiti from the andron of the temple are comprised of Greek and Semitic names in roughly equal numbers.69
World History
