Hadrian

Whereas the greatest architectural works prior to the reign of Hadrian were Roman, in his era they were distributed throughout the empire. Hadrian attempted to build in every province. The importance of Rome faded

The inscription on the Arch of Severus (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S. J.)

In comparison. Nonetheless, the pantheon, though not innovative in style, was one of the most stunning achievements of any age, and Hadrian’s palace at tivoli was beautiful, large and splendidly suited to the artistic and gifted emperor. It was built between 118 and 134 c. e., and contained courtyards, villas, a Serapeum, baths, a piazza and a library. The influence of Hadrian’s worldwide travels was evident in the varied styles upon which the palace was based.

From approximately the time of Trajan, and especially in the reign of Hadrian, Africa was Romanized architecturally lepcis magna, for example, received baths, and building programs in the provinces increased during the late empire. Rome was deemphasized as an artistic or architectural center in direct proportion to imperial aspirations and attention to the rest of the Roman world. Further, the ostentatious styles and imitations of classicism faded in the reawakening of the straightforward Roman or Republican designs. Roman imperial architecture lost vigor in this era, but it was revived in the period following the rule of the Antonines, in the late second century.

The Late Empire

The architecture of the late empire underwent periods of vitality and stagnation, mirroring the political climate of Rome and the empire. Septimius Severus, taking the throne in 193 c. e., ruled Rome with certainty and thus initiated a program of construction both in the city and in his home province of Africa. Rome had been devastated by the fire of 191, and the emperor rebuilt the city, adding to the palatine palace and creating a new structure, a many-columned building called the Septizonium. Severus’s other notable edifice was the Arch, which was traditional in design.

Caracalla, ruling on his own after 211 c. e., was remembered for one architectural achievement: the Baths of Caracalla. Built from 212 to 216, they were exceptional, with huge decorated rooms: the Calidarium, Natatio, and Frigidarium. Little remains of later reigns, except for the partially rebuilt temples of severus Alexander’s reign. Between the reigns of Caracalla and Diocletian, from 211 to 284 c. e., few examples of construction are evident. It is known, however, that in 271 the Emperor aurelian built sturdy but commonplace walls around the city

With Diocletian and the Age of the tetrarchy, Rome was totally eclipsed. The empire was divided into four great areas, and each tetrarch (either an “augustus” or a “caesar”) controlled vast territories. Each wished to live in grandeur and built accordingly. The designs used in this period were traditional Roman. other palaces at trier, thessalonica, MILAN, and nicomedia displayed architectural splendors. Diocletian’s palace at split, on the Yugoslavian coast, was the most beautiful of these royal residences. The palace at Split was created from 300 to 306 C. E. and was designed much like a great military camp. The walled complex reflected the military activity of the period.

In Rome, during the period from Diocletian to the end of the empire, three lasting achievements became part of the city’s heritage. Diocletian constructed Baths (298-306 C. E.) that were more compact and united in theme and design. Constantine, in 315, ordered the carving of a giant Arch, thus marking a return to classicism; and the basilica maxentius was the culmination of the traditional style of architecture in the Western Empire. The new age that would stretch into the Middle Ages began in the East, and its birth was seen in the building of CONSTANTINOPLE.

See also engineering.

Suggested Readings: Dunbabin, Katherine. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000; Elsner, J. R. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: The Art of the Roman Empire AD

100-450. Oxford, U. K.: Oxford, 1998;-. Art and the

Roman Viewer: The Transformation of Art from the Pagan World to Christianity. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press, 1997; Grant, Michael, and Ken Dowden. Art in the Roman Empire. New York: Routledge, 1996; Ling, Roger. Roman Painting. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge University Press, 1991; MacCormack, Sabine. Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press, c. 1981; McDonald, William. The Architecture of the Roman Empire: An Introductory Study. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982; McDonald, William. Architecture of the Roman Empire: An Urban Appraisal. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988; McKay, Alexander. Houses, Villas, and Palaces in the Roman World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998; Mortimer Wheeler, Sir Robert. Roman Art and Architecture. London: Thames & Hudson, 1985; Myers, Bernard S., and Trewin Copple-stone. The History of Art: Architecture—Painting—Sculpture. New York: Dorset, 1985; Pischel, Gina. A World History of Art. Introduced by Luisa Becherucci. New York: Golden Press, 1996; Ramage, Nancy, and Andrew Ramage. Roman Art. New York: Prentice Hall, 2000; Richter, Gisela, and Martin Henig, eds. A Handbook of Roman Art: A Survey of the Visual Art of the Roman World. New York: Phaidon Press, 1995; Strong, Donald. Roman Art. New York: Viking-Penguin, 1988; Ward-Perkins, John. Roman Imperial Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992; Wheeler, Mortimer. Roman Art and Architecture. Washington, D. C.: Frederic Praeger, 1964.

Artabanus III (d. 38 c. e.) King of Parthia from 12 to 38 C. E. ousted from his throne on several occasions Like so many of the Arsacid princes, Artabanus came to the kingship after a struggle, in his case, with the despised Vonones I. Originating from an Arsacid line, but having served in Media, the prince was chosen by the Parthians to lead the country, and Vonones was driven into Armenia, and then into Syria and Cilicia, where he died in 19 C. E.

Artabanus possessed only a temporary hold on his throne and was always aware of the dangerous factions involved in court politics. Such concerns prevented him from questioning Germanicus’s placement in 18 of the Pontic descendant of Polemo I, Zeno, on Armenia’s throne. Instead, he waited and sent a letter of friendship to Rome. The next years were spent solidifying his territorial holdings with a series of successful campaigns. By

34,  he felt prepared to carry out his ambitions.

In 34, Zeno (also called Artaxias) died. Artabanus immediately set his own son Arsaces on the throne of Armenia. According to Tacitus, he then sent to Rome threatening letters. Such actions stirred the pro-Roman faction into sending a delegation to Rome, to ask Tiberius for assistance. The emperor dispatched Phraates, the son of Phraates IV of Parthia, to the scene, but he died in Syria and did not reach his destination. Tiberius then sent Tiridates, who was also an Arsacid. Tiri-dates overcame Artabanus and ruled, albeit briefly (see ABDAGAESES).

Artabanus returned to the throne soon after, but in

35,  at the instigation of the Romans, Mithridates of the Asian Kingdom of Iberia invaded Parthia. After his generals were defeated, and in the face of invasion by the commander of the legions, Lucius Vitellius, Artabanus accepted Roman supremacy in Armenia. Shortly afterward, another palace intrigue forced him from the throne, but he regained it and died in 38, probably from exhaustion. He was succeeded by his son, Gotarzes.

Artabanus V (d. c. 226 c. e.) King of Parthia and the last effective ruler of the Arsacid Dynasty

Artabanus V was destroyed by ardashir i in 226 C. E., losing his troops and his life. The brother of the ruler Volo-gases V, Artabanus overthrew him and ascended the throne sometime before 224. The perpetual dynastic feuds, however, made the Arsacid line politically unstable. When Ardashir of Persia revolted against the Arsacids in 208, capturing numerous satrapies within the Parthian Empire, Artabanus felt unable to meet the threat immediately. He waited until 224 to confront Ardashir, and by that time it was too late. Ardashir defeated the Parthians and proclaimed himself King of Kings, the traditional Persian title of supremacy. Artabanus was later killed.

Artagira A city in Armenia near Artaxata, in the province of Ararat; a strongly garrisoned site. In 2 C. E., the throne of Armenia was vacant, and Gaius Caesar, with the permission of Augustus, placed Ariobarzanes of Media in the position of king. The Parthians, who had a vested interest in Armenia, stirred up a revolt among their own supporters in the nation. A large force of rebels took refuge in the fortress city of Artagira. Gaius Caesar arrived there in late August of 3, and on September 9, Addon, the captain of the walls, asked to speak with him. Gaius was wounded in the confrontation and was carried away by his outraged lieutenants. The Romans promptly laid siege to the city and captured the fort after bitter fighting. Gaius died in February of the next year from the wounds received.

Artavasdes (1) (fl. first century b. c.e.) King of Media Atropatene

First an ally of parthia against Rome (c. 53 b. c.e.) but later closely connected with Emperor Augustus, Artavas-des turned in 34 b. c.e., from the Parthians and offered his help to Antony In 30 b. c.e., however, when the Arsacid King Phraates IV conquered both Media and Armenia, Artavasdes was forced to flee to Syria. Seeking a reliable ally on the Euphrates frontier, Octavian (Augustus) gave Artavasdes the kingdom of Armenia Minor in 30 b. c.e.

Artavasdes (2) (d. 34 b. c.e.) King of Armenia from 56 to 34 B. C.E.

An unreliable ally to Marc Antony during his wars against Parthia. Succeeding his father, Tigranes, he participated in the invasion of Parthia in 54 b. c.e. by M. Licinius Crassus. Artavasdes was a half-hearted ally who gave the Roman no aid at all, and when the Parthians invaded Armenia, he changed sides entirely, becoming a vassal of Orodes II. Artavasdes surrendered to Marc Antony in 37 b. c.e. and promised his help. Surprisingly, Antony trusted him, and Artavasdes was given escort duty over Antony’s food wagons. The Armenian king betrayed the Romans and allowed them to face a slaughter, forcing Antony to retreat. Antony sought vengeance and in 34 b. c.e. captured the king and two of his sons, Artavasdes and Tigranes; Artaxes, another son, had escaped. The king was taken to Alexandria, where Cleopatra VII had him executed. Plutarch described him as a well educated man, who had a great fondness for all things Greek.

Artaxata Capital of Armenia; located in Ararat Province on the Araxes River. It was built by Artaxes I during the Punic Wars (third-second centuries b. c.e.). Strabo claimed that Hannibal aided in the construction of the city Its possession subsequently became a symbol of domination between rival powers. The Romans, however, caused the greatest amount of damage and suffering.

In 58 C. E., Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo invaded and reclaimed Armenia for Nero, besieging and then capturing the capital from the east; the city was surrounded on all the other sides by the Araxes River. According to Tacitus, the king of Armenia, Tiridates, watched helplessly as Artaxata was burned to the ground.

In 66, Tiridates gained the favor of Nero, returning home with 200,000 sesterces and with artisans, craftsmen, and gifts, as well as the emperor’s permission to rebuild the capital. Artaxata was to be named Neronia, a title that lasted only until Nero’s fall in 69.

In 164, Statius Priscus took Armenia and erected a new city to take the old capital’s place. Artaxata, however, remained of some importance, for Ammianus Marcellinus mentioned that in 363 the Persians retook Armenia, gaining a sizable portion of the country, including Artaxata.

See also tigranocerta.