Combined bioarchaeological and archaeological studies also have the potential to inquire about gender-based diasporas, particularly as they relate to issues of female versus male exogamy. That is, if sex-based differences in migration are detected through biodistance and stable isotope analyses and cranial modification studies, then it may be possible to reconstruct community organization as it relates to post-marital residence rules. For example, in the study of cranial modification among Atacamenos, Torres-Rouff (2002) noted an increase in moderate annular forms among females from pre-Tiwanaku to Tiwanaku times, perhaps resulting from virilocal exogamy, in which foreign-born females were incorporated into the local group (Torres-Rouff 2002). This seemed to coincide with facial morphology data, showing differences between the sexes at the same Atacama sites. However, given that both time periods showed “foreign-looking” females (Costa and Llagos-Tera 1994), it is possible that the male-female morphological differences could have been more related to sexual dimorphism or a long historical tradition of virilocal exogamy with non-Atacama groups (who did not
Necessarily come from Tiwanaku). Additionally, the differences in facial morphology could have been related to masticatory behavior, not genes (see comment above), so it is unclear if non-local females migrated into the Atacama group. Moreover, among the four Atacama burials that exhibited non-local strontium isotope ratios, all were male (Knudson et al. 2004); no females exhibited non-local values, suggesting that no foreign-born females were present among those sampled from the Atacama cemeteries. Based on my analysis of Knudson’s (2004) detailed strontium isotope database of Atacama samples (see Appendix A in Knudson 2004), there was no statistically significant difference in the frequency of foreign males (4/23 = 17%) relative to foreign females (0/11 = 0%) (Fisher’s exact test, p = 0.191; df = 1; N = 34) (N = 34 and not 35 because one individual was unsexed). Thus, current data are more consistent with local endogamy than with female or male exogamy. While much remains to be done, methods are in place to examine these kinds of nuanced questions.
Bioarchaeological data from Conchopata also provide preliminary insights into similar issues, keeping in mind that current datasets are too small to formulate conclusions. As recounted above, all four females from Conchopata (five females if the infant’s strontium signature, which reflects the mother’s signature, is included) exhibited local strontium isotope ratios in their teeth and bones (Tung 2003; Tung and Knudson n. d.). This suggests that women were born locally, spending their entire lives there until buried at the site. To date, no strontium isotope or cranial modification data reveal females from distant zones residing within the Conchopata community (Tung 2003), suggesting endogamy for the site or local area [Note 5].
World History
