A site in the Qantir district on the banks of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, called “the Estate of Ramesses,” the city was a suburban territory of the ancient capital of the HYKSOS, AVARIS. RAMESSES II (r. 1290-1224 B. C.E.) founded Per-Ramesses, although some aspects of the city date to RAMESSES I (r. 1307-1306 b. c.e.) as his royal line originated in the region of the Delta.
The formal name of the site, Per-Ramesse-se-Mery-Amun-’A-nakhtu, “the House of Ramesses, Beloved of Amun, Great of Victories,” indicates the splendor and vitality of the new capital. A large palace, private residences, temples, military garrisons, a harbor, gardens, and a vineyard were designed for the city, which was the largest and costliest in Egypt. Processions, pageants, and festivals were held throughout the year. The original royal palace at Per-Ramesses is recorded as covering an area of four square miles. When the site was abandoned at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty (1070 b. c.e.) many monuments were transported to the nearby city of tanis.
Persea Tree This was the mythological tree of HELIOPOLIS that served varying functions associated with the feline enemy of apophis. A fragrant cedar, the Persea
The Persea Tree that held the names of the rulers of Egypt on a bas-relief from the Ramesseum. The goddess Sheshet (second from right) writes the name of Ramesses II (seated center) on the leaves of the tree. To his left sits the god Amun Re and at far right is Thoth, the god of wisdom. (Hulton Archive.)
Tree sheltered a divine cat being, called mau, dedicated to protecting the god re.
When the serpent apophis attacked Re on his nightly journeys in the tuat, or Underworld, the cat in the Persea Tree slew him. Trees were part of the cosmogonic traditions of Egypt and were deemed essential elements of the various paradises awaiting the deceased beyond the grave.
Persen (fl. 25th century b. c.e.) Official of the Fifth Dynasty
He served sahure (r. 2458-2446 b. c.e.) as an overseer of various royal projects and offices. An inscription from Persen’s tomb depicts the honors he received from Queen NEFERHETEPES (3), the mother of Sahure. She provided mortuary offerings at his tomb as a gesture of her appreciation for his services.
Persenti (fl. 26th century b. c.e.) Royal woman of the Fourth Dynasty
Persenti was a lesser consort of khafre (Chephren; r. 2520-2494 b. c.e.). She was not the favorite and she was not the mother of the heir. Her son was nekaure. She was buried in the royal mortuary complex at giza.
Persia One of the major empires that competed with Egypt in the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.), the Persian Empire was vast and well controlled, despite the rising power of the Greeks and the dominance of the medes in the Persian homeland. Cyrus the Great forged the true Persian Empire c. 550 b. c.e.
The original Persians, members of the Indo-Europeans, were evident on the western iranian plateau by 850 b. c.e. They were a nomadic people who claimed the name Parsa. By 600 b. c.e., they were on the southwestern Iranian plateau, dominated by the native Medes. The original capital of the Persians was Susa.
By 500 b. c.e., the Persian Empire extended from modern Pakistan in the Indus Valley to Thrace in the west and to Egypt in the south. The Persians ruled 1 million square miles of the earth at the height of their power. The raids of darius i (r. 521-486 b. c.e.) into Thrace and Macedonia aroused a response that would result in the empire’s destruction two centuries later. ALEXANDER III THE GREAT would bring about Persia’s downfall in 332 b. c.e.
The first Persian to rule Egypt was cambyses (r. 525-522 b. c.e.), who opened the Twenty-seventh Dynasty on the Nile. Cambyses was followed on the Persian throne by darius i, xerxes i (r. 486-446 b. c.e.), artax-ERXES I (r. 465-424 b. c.e.), and Darius II (r. 423405 b. c.e.).
The Persians returned to rule as the Thirty-first Dynasty, or the Second Persian Period, in 343 b. c.e. This royal line, as were their predecessors, was plagued by profound internal problems in their homeland, with many emperors being slain. The rulers of Egypt during the Thirty-first Dynasty were artaxerxes iii ochus (r. 343-338 b. c.e.), Artaxerxes IV arses (r. 338-336 b. c.e.), and DARIUS III codoman (335-332 b. c.e.).
Per-Temu This was a site on the western edge of the Delta, the modern Tell el-Maskhuta, near Ismaliya and the Suez Canal. Originally a hyksos enclave, the site was used by necho ii (r. 610-595 b. c.e.) to serve as a new city Per-Temu was part of the wadi timulat trade route.
Pert-er-Kheru This was an ancient Egyptian phrase meaning “from the mouth of the god,” designating a moral or spiritual saying, normally those contained in the sacred texts from early periods. Adages, counsels, and the didactic literary works called “instructions,” which had been handed down over the centuries, were incorporated into rituals. By repeating the Pert-er-Kheru over and over, the present was linked to the past and to the future.
Peru-Nefer It was the principal naval base of Egypt, located near Memphis. Egypt had always maintained fleets of ships for Nile travel, opening the cataracts of the Nile River in order to reach Nubian (modern Sudanese) FORTRESSES and TRADE centers. In the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1307 b. c.e.) the need for such ships and the use of larger vessels for Mediterranean travel demanded an increase in naval training. As early as the Sixth Dynasty (2323-2150 b. c.e.) troops had been transported to Mediterranean campaign sites by boat.
The base of Peru-Nefer contained a ship dock and a repair complex for Nile and Mediterranean vessels employed in the trade and military campaigns of the historical period. tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) and AMENHOTEP II (r. 1427-1401 b. c.e.) served as commanders of the naval base before assuming the throne. Peru-Nefer declined at the end of the New Kingdom in 1070 b. c.e.
See also military.
Peryneb (fl. 24th century b. c.e.) Royal palace chamberlain of the Fifth Dynasty
He served both IZEZI (r. 2388-2356 b. c.e.) and unis (r. 2356-2323 b. c.e.) as lord chamberlain of the royal household. Peryneb was the son of the vizier Shepses-re, and he was buried near the pyramid of userkhaf His actual mastaba is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
Pesuir (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Honored viceroy of the Nineteenth Dynasty
He served ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) as viceroy of Kush, or NUBIA (modern Sudan). This office carried the title “King’s Son of Kush.” A sandstone statue of Pesuir was discovered in ABU simbel, in the second hall of
Ramesses II’s temple. This rare honor attests to Pesuir’s standing.
Pet The ancient Egyptian word for the sky, which was also called hreyet, the pet was supported by four pillars, called PILLARS of shu, depicted in reliefs as mountains or as women with their arms outstretched. Many texts of Egyptian religious traditions allude to the four pillars, which were associated ritually to the solar bark of the god RE. The goddess nut personified the sky also. The Egyptians believed that there was another pet, invisible to the living. This sky was over the tuat, the Underworld.
Pete’ese (fl. fifth century b. c.e.) Official petitioner of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty
An elderly scribe, Pete’ese sent a petition to darius i (r. 521-486 b. c.e.) describing the wrongs suffered by his family, dating all the way back to the reign of psam-METICHUS I (r. 664-610 b. c.e.) The petition, presenting a lurid tale of persecution, fraud, and imprisonment survived, but Darius I’s response did not.
Petosiris (fl. third century b. c.e.) Priestly official of the early Ptolemaic Period, famed for his tomb decorations Petosiris probably served in the reign of ptolemy i soter (304-284 b. c.e.). He was the high priest of thoth at her-MOPOLIS MAGNA. His tomb had a small temple at tuna el-GEBEL, Hermopolis Magna, and was called “the Great One of the Five Masters of the Works.” An exquisite version of the BOOK OF THE DEAD was discovered there as well.
Petosiris’s tomb-temple was fashioned in the Ptolemaic rectangular style, with a horned altar and a halfcolumned portico. His father, Seshu, and his brother, Djedthutefankh, were also buried with him. The tomb has a sanctuary with four square columns and a subterranean shaft and depicts the god Kheper. The wall reliefs indicate Greek influences. Petosiris’s inner coffin was made of blackened pine, inlaid with glass.
Petrified forests These are two territories in which the trees have been petrified by natural causes over the centuries. One of the forests is located in the desert, east of modern Cairo, in the wadi labbab region. The second is east of ma’adi, south of modern Cairo, in the Wadi el-Tih.
Peukestas (fl. fourth century b. c.e.) Companion of Alexander the Great
Called “the son of Markartatos,” Peukestas was given a portion of Egypt by Alexander iii the great. A document called “the Order of Peukestas” was promulgated for this grant. This text was found in MEMPHIS and is reported by some as the earliest known Greek document in Egypt.
Phanes of Halicarnassus (fl. sixth century b. c.e.) Greek mercenary general who aided the Persian invasion of
Egypt
He was originally in the service of psammetichus iii (r. 526-525 b. c.e.) but defected and advised the Persian CAMBYSES (r. 525-522 b. c.e.) how to cross the eastern desert safely. Phanes counseled the Persians to hire Bedouin guides in order to use the sandy wastes efficiently His sons had remained in Egypt when Phanes defected, and they were dragged in front of the Egyptians and mercenary troops amassed at the battle site so that Phanes and the Persians could see them just before the onset of the conflict. Phanes’ two sons were both killed by having their throats slit, and their blood was drained into a large bowl. Wine was poured into the bowl, and the mercenary troops, outraged by Phanes’ betrayal, sipped the blood to a man. Herodotus recorded this event in his Histories, Book Three.
Pharaoh It was the name of the rulers of Egypt, derived from the word pero or pera’a, which designated the royal residence. The term became associated with the ruler and was eventually used in cartouches and royal decrees. The roles of these rulers, along with their specific titles, evolved slowly after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c. 3000 b. c.e. Dynasties emerged after that unification, and a state cult was developed to define the powers of such pharaohs. In time the ruler was described in the tomb of rekhmire, serving tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) in the following terms: “He is a god by whose dealings one lives, the father and mother of all men, alone, by himself without an equal.”
The pharaohs were officially titled neter-nefer, which gave them semidivine status. Neter meant god and nefer good and beautiful, an adjective that modified the godlike qualities and limited the pharaonic role and nature. The royal cults proclaimed this elevated status, beginning in the earliest dynastic periods, by announcing that the pharaohs were “the good god,” the incarnation of horus, the son of re. On earth they manifested the divine, and in death they would become OSIRIS. Through their association with these deities, the pharaohs assumed specific roles connected to the living, to the dead, and to natural processes. While on the throne, they were expected to serve as the supreme human, the heroic warrior, the champion of all rights, the dispenser of equal justice, and the defender of MA’at and the nation.
Egypt belonged to each pharaoh, and the nation’s ideals and destiny were physically present in his person. His enemies, therefore, were the enemies of the gods themselves and all things good in nature and in the divine order. This concept developed slowly, of course, and pharaohs came to the throne declaring that they were mandated by the gods “to restore ma’at,” no matter how illustrious their immediate predecessor had been. The semidivine nature of the pharaoh did not have a negative effect on the levels of service rendered by nobles or commoners, however. His role, stressed in the educational processes at all levels, inspired a remarkable devotion among civil servants, and each pharaoh attracted competent and faithful officials. The temple rituals added to the allure of the pharaoh and developed another contingent of loyal servants for the reign.
The rulers of Egypt were normally the sons and heirs of their immediate predecessors, either by “the Great Wife,” the chief consort, or by a lesser-ranked wife. Some, including tuthmosis iii (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty, were the offspring of the pharaoh and HAREM women. In the early dynasties the rulers married female aristocrats to establish connections to the local nobility of the Delta or MEMPHIS, the capital. In subsequent periods many married their sisters or half sisters, if available, and some, including akhenaten, took their own daughters as consorts. in the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.) the rulers did not hesitate to name commoners as the Great Wife, and several married foreign princesses.
The rulers of the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.) were monarchs who were intent upon ruling a united land, although the actual process of unification was not completed until 2649 b. c.e. There is evidence that these early kings were motivated by certain ideals concerning their responsibilities to the people, ideals that were institutionalized in later eras. Like the gods who created the universe out of chaos, the pharaoh was responsible for the orderly conduct of human affairs. upon ascending the throne, later pharaohs of Egypt claimed that they were restoring the spirit of ma’at in the land, cosmic order and harmony, the divine will.
Warfare was an essential aspect of the pharaoh’s role from the beginning. The rulers of the Predynastic Periods, later deified as the souls of pe and souls of NEKHEN, had fought to establish unity, and the first dynastic rulers had to defend borders, put down rebellions, and organize the exploitation of natural resources. A strong government was in place by the dynastic period, the nation being divided into provincial territories called nomes. Royal authority was imposed by an army of officials, who were responsible for the affairs of both Upper and Lower Egypt. The law was thus the expression of the ruler’s will, and all matters, both religious and secular, were dependent upon his assent. The entire administration of Egypt, in fact, was but an extension of the ruler’s power.
By the Third Dynasty, djoser (r. 2630-2611 b. c.e.) could command sufficient resources to construct his vast mortuary complex, a monumental symbol of the land’s prosperity and centralization. The step pyramid, erected for him by imhotep, the vizier of the reign, announced the powers of Djoser and reinforced the divine status of the rulers. Other Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) pharaohs continued to manifest their power with similar structures, culminating in the great pyramids at Giza.
In the First Intermediate Period (2134-2040 b. c.e.) the role of the pharaoh was eclipsed by the dissolution of central authority Toward the end of the Old Kingdom certain powers were delegated to the nome aristocracy, and the custom of appointing only royal family members to high office was abandoned. The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties attempted to reinstate the royal cult, but these rulers could not stave off the collapse of those royal lines. In the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties, the khetys of herak-LEOPOLIS assumed the role of pharaoh and began to work toward the reunification of Egypt, using the various nome armies as allies. The rise of the inyotefs of thebes, however, during the Eleventh Dynasty, brought an end to the Khetys’ designs. montuhotep ii (r. 2061-2010 b. c.e.) captured Herakleopolis and reunited Upper and Lower Egypt.
The Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 b. c.e.) emerged from Montuhotep ii’s victory over the northern rulers, and Egypt was again united under a central authority. When the Middle Kingdom collapsed in 1640 b. c.e., Egypt faced another period of turmoil and division. The Thirteenth through Sixteenth Dynasties vied for land and power, and the hyksos dominated the eastern Delta and then much of Lower Egypt. it is interesting that these Asiatic rulers, especially those among them called “the Great Hyksos,” assumed the royal traditions of Egypt and embraced all of the titles and customs of their predecessors.
In THEBES, however, another royal line, the Seventeenth Dynasty, slowly amassed resources and forces and began the campaigns to expel the Hyksos. kamose, the last king of this line, died in battle, and the assault on AVARIS, the Hyksos capital, was completed by ’ahmose, who founded the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.). This was the age of the Tuthmossids, followed by the Rames-sids, Egypt’s imperial period. Military activities characterized the period, and many of the kings were noted warriors. The prestige of the king was greatly enhanced as a result, and amenhotep iii and ramesses ii had themselves deified. The New Kingdom, as did other dynastic eras in Egypt, drew to a close when the pharaohs were no longer able to assert their authority, and thereby galvanize the nation. The New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 b. c.e.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 b. c.e.), the role of the pharaoh was fractured, as competing crowned rulers or self-styled leaders issued their decrees from the Delta and Thebes. The rise of the Libyans in the Twenty-second Dynasty (945-712 b. c.e.) aided Egypt by providing military defenses and a cultural renaissance, but shoshenq i (r. 945-924 b. c.e.) and his successors were clearly recognized as foreigners, and the dynasty was unable to approach the spiritual elements necessary for the revival of the true pharaoh of the past. This was evident to the Nubians (modern Sudanese),
A limestone relief of Amenhotep III in his war chariot, discovered at Qurna. (Hulton Archive.)
Who watched a succession of city-states, petty rulers, and chaos in Egypt and entered the land to restore the periods of spiritual power and majesty. The Persians, entering the Nile Valley in 525 B. C.E., came with a sense of disdain concerning the cultic practices of Egypt and the various rulers competing for power.
ALEXANDER III THE GREAT, arriving in Egypt in 332 B. C.E., was one of the few occupying foreigners who appeared to embody the old ideals of the pharaohs, but his successors, the Ptolemies (304-30 B. C.E.), could not immerse themselves into the true spiritual concepts involved. They ruled only from ALEXANDRIA without impacting on the distant nomes. With the death of CLEOPATRA VII in 30 B. C.E., the pharaohs became faded monuments of the past.
Suggested Readings: Berger, Melvin, and Gilda Berger. Mummies of the Pharaohs: Exploring the Valley of the Kings. Washington, D. C.: National Geographic Society, 2001;
Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-byReign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994; De Beler, Aude Gros. Pharaohs. Paris: La Maison de Moliere, 2000; Muller, Hans Wolfgang, and Eberhard Thiem. Gold of the Pharaohs. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999; Patridge, Robert B. Faces of the Pharaohs: Royal Mummies and Coffins from Ancient Thebes. New York: David Brown, 1996; Pickles, Dewayne E., and Arthur M. Schlesinger, ed. Egyptian Kings and Queens and Classical Deities. New York: Chelsea House, 1997; Quirke, Stephen. Who Were the Pharaohs? A History of Their Names with a List of Cartouches. Mineola, N. Y.: Dover Publications, 1991; Tyldes-ley, Joyce A. The Private Lives of the Pharaohs: Unlocking the Secrets of Egyptian Royalty. New York: TV Books, 2001.
Pharbaites See hurbeit.
Pharnabazus (fl. fourth century b. c.e.) Persian satrap who commanded the Persian invasion of Egypt in 373 b. c.e. This invasion took place in the reign of nectanebo i (380-362 b. c.e.). Pharnabazus’s troops caused terrible damage to the Egyptian defenses but were repulsed. He also quarreled with the commander of the Greek mercenary army in his train. The Greeks, battle wise, tried to consolidate gains made by probing Egyptian weaknesses, but Pharnabazus overruled such activities, dooming the Persian cause. The Nile River served as well as a natural defense, inundating the Delta and destroying the Persian and Greek camps. The invading army withdrew from the scene.
Pharos See lighthouse of Alexandria.
Philae a religious site on an island at Aswan, called “the Island in the Time of Re,” Philae comes from the Egyptian Paaleq or Pilak, meaning “the End” or “Remote Place.” Philae’s monuments, threatened by the Aswan High Dam, are now on Agilquiyya Island. The original site became active in the Thirtieth Dynasty nectanebo i (r. 380-362 b. c.e.) erected a hall there as well as a kiosk. Several prominent temples distinguished Philae in time, dedicated to ISIS, Harendotus, imhotep, and arsenuphis.
The temple of Isis contains the hall of nectanebo ii (r. 360-343 b. c.e.), eastern and western colonnades, a shrine to Imhotep, a gate from the reign of ptolemy ii philadelphus (285-246 b. c.e.), and a second chapel. Two pylons are part of the design, as well as a MAMMISI, additional colonnades, and a quay.
PTOLEMY IV philopator (r. 221-205 b. c.e.) and King arkamani of meroe, Nubia (modern Sudan), in a rare joint building program erected a temple dedicated to the deity Arsenuphis at Philae. Other Ptolemys added
The temple of Isis at Philae, now moved to higher ground to save it from the waters of the Aswan High Dam. (Courtesy Steve Beikirch.)
Obelisks, a HYPOSTYLE hall, a prenaos, a temple to hathor, and chapels. The last hieroglyphic inscription dates to 394 c. e., as the Romans added their own structures or adornments.
Philetas of Cos (d. c. 270 b. c.e.) Greek scholar and Ptolemaic tutor of Alexandria
The Greek scholar strato, who was the tutor of the royal household of ptolemy i soter (r. 304-284 b. c.e.), invited Philetas to Alexandria. There, Philetas founded the Hellenistic school of poetry He also wrote poetry, a hymn to Demeter, and a dictionary Philetas remained in service to the crown, tutoring ptolemy ii philadelphus (r. 285-246 b. c.e.).
Philip III Arrhidaeus (d. 316 b. c.e.) Half brother of Alexander the Great and ruler of Egypt He reigned from 323 b. c.e. until he was murdered. PTOLEMY I SOTER served as Philip Ill’s satrap in Egypt. Recorded by contemporaries as somewhat dimwitted, Philip III built a bark shrine for the god amun at karnak in THEBES and put a relief on the walls of the Karnak complex. Philip III married his half niece, adea-eury-DICE. He was murdered by olympias, the queen mother of Alexander III the Great. Alexander iv (r. 316-304 b. c.e.) succeeded him.
Phoenicians They were the people from modern Lebanon, so named by the Greeks, Phoinikes, “the red men.” The Phoenicians were master traders and navigators, and they were well known for their inventions, including the popular porphura, a purple murex dye. They settled in the cities of Tyre and Sidon around 3000 b. c.e. and quickly began their trading and artistic crafts. Their alphabet was established by c. 1000 b. c.e. in the city of Tyre.
By 900 b. c.e., the great Phoenician ships were sailing to Greece, Egypt, Assyria, and other lands concerned with the growing trade and commerce. The Phoenicians sought silver, tin, and copper and reportedly sailed to the present-day British isles to visit the copper mines there. They exported chickens from India before 700 b. c.e., introducing them to the West. In 600 b. c.e. the Phoenicians circumnavigated Africa.
The cities of byblos, Sidon, and Tyre were prospering in Phoenicia before 1000 b. c.e. The Phoenicians also founded Carthage in modern Tunisia and Goddir, modern Cadiz, in southern Spain. The Phoenicians were under the control of Persia’s Cyrus I the Great c. 540 b. c.e. and became part of the empire of Alexander iii the great in 332 B. C.E. From 300 b. c.e. until 150 b. c.e., the nation was part of the Seleucid empire.
Egypt conducted trade with Phoenicia in the old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) or perhaps earlier. During the New Kingdom (1550-1070 b. c.e.), under the imperial policies of the Tuthmossids and Ramessids, Phoenicia served as a vassal state. A statue of shoshenq i (r. 945-924 B. C.E.) was placed in a Phoenician temple by the reigning prince of the time, abibaal. Phoenicia continued trade networks with Egyptian dynasties after the fall of the Ramessids in 1070 B. C.E., and the land was heavily garrisoned by Egyptian troops. When Cleopatra vii (r. 51-30 B. C.E.) died, the Romans took control of Phoenicia.
Phoenix It was a sacred symbol in Egypt, associated with the BENNU Bird, and with the ished and persea Trees in cosmological traditions. Sometimes called “the BA of RE,” the soul of the god Re, the fabled bird was associated with Re’s cult at Heliopolis. Originally the bird was depicted as a yellow wagtail, then as a gray heron. it was taught that the cry of the heron started all of the creative processes of the earth. The egg laid by the heron on the PRIMEVAL MOUND contained the god Re. Herodotus, the Greek historian, described the symbol of the phoenix in use in his historical period as an eagle with red and gold plumage. Only one phoenix lived at a time. The phoenix symbolized rebirth and resurrection.
Piankhi (1) (Piye) (d. 712 B. C.E.) Second ruler of the Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty
He reigned over Egypt and Nubia (modern Sudan) from 750 B. C.E. until his death. He was the son of the Nubian ruler kashta and Queen pebatma. Piankhi entered Egypt in response to pleas from people suffering under the reign of tefnakhte of SAIS in the Twenty-fourth Dynasty (r. 724-717 B. C.E.).
Piankhi claimed that his military campaign was justified by his desire to restore the faith of the people in the god AMUN. The great temple of Amun at napata maintained the traditional tenets and rituals of the cult, but the Egyptians appeared to have become lax in their devotion. Piankhi sent an army into Egypt to rectify that lapse in Amunite fervor.
A stela of victory at the temple of Amun in Napata, reproduced at other major Egyptian sites, recounts the military campaigns conducted in his name. His army faced a coalition of Egyptian forces led by Tefnakhte of Sais. Other rulers allied with Tefnakhte were osorkon iv of TANIS, peftjau’abast of herakleopolis, nimlot (4) of hermopolis, and iuput (4) of leontopolis. They marched to Herakleopolis and were defeated in a confrontation with Piankhi. Tefnakhte fled but was taken prisoner when the Nubians moved northward. Piankhi conducted two naval battles to defeat Tefnakhte in the Delta, and all of the local rulers surrendered. Piankhi returned to Thebes soon after to celebrate the Amunite Feast of opet. He stayed several months and then returned to Napata.
Piankhi had married pekassater, the daughter of Nubian king alara. While in Thebes, he had his sister, AMENIRDIS (1), adopted by shepenwepet (1) as the god’s
WIFE OF AMUN, or Divine Adoratrice of Amun. The Nubians ruled almost all of Egypt at the end of Piankhi’s stay. His dynasty would bring about a renaissance of the arts in Egypt and would maintain a vigorous defense of the nation. Piankhi died at Napata and was buried in the royal necropolis at El-Kurru. Burial chambers for his favorite horses were erected around his tomb. Piankhi was succeeded by his brother shabaka.
Piankhi (2) (fl. 11th century B. C.E.) Priestly official of the Twenty-first Dynasty
He served as the high priest of amun during the reign of RAMESSES XI (1100-1070 B. C.E.). A son-in-law of herihor, Piankhi assumed the prelature of Amun without using royal titles or regalia, maintaining order in thebes, and campaigning in nubia (modern Sudan) against rebels. His son, PINUDJEM (1), was married to henuttawy, the daughter of smendes, and succeeded Piankhi as high priest of Amun. Piankhi died during the reign of RAMESSES XI.
“Pillar of His Mother” The name given to a unique priestly caste associated with the cult of horus and ISIS in Egypt. The priests of this caste had to have the rank of prince in order to be inducted into this temple service. tuthmosis III (r. 1479-1425 b. c.e.) was recorded as serving as a “Pillar of His Mother” when he was elevated to the rank of heir to the throne. The use of the term “Pillar” alluded to the strength in defending and protecting. “The Mother” referred to was probably Egypt, not the biological life giver.
Pillars of Shu They were cosmological structures in Egyptian cults, four columns that supported the heavens, called PET. The Pillars of shu stood at each corner of the rectangular formation of heaven and were guarded by the Sons of Horus, imsety, hapi (2), duamutef, and qebehsennuf These supernatural beings also guarded the CANOPIC JARS of the deceased in tombs.
Pillow amulet This was a carved fetish in the form of the traditional wooden headrest of ancient Egypt. The Egyptians did not use pillows in the early pharaonic eras as such comforts were introduced later. An amulet used in mummified remains, this fetish assured that the head of the deceased would be resurrected safely beyond the grave.
Pinudjem (1) (fl. 11th century b. c.e.) An official and self-styled pharaoh of the Twenty-first Dynasty PINUDJEM served as high priest of amun at thebes, and became a self-styled “pharaoh” in the reign of smendes (1070-1044 B. C.E.), assuming privileges and the attire of such god-kings. He was the son of piankhi (2) and inherited his father’s temple rank in Thebes. Some years later, c. 1054 B. C.E., Pinudjem assumed a royal name, Keper-kare Setepenamun Kanakhhtemeryamun, and elevated himself to the rank of pharaoh. He usurped the karnak monuments of ramesses ii as well. Pinudjem thus became Smendes’ coregent.
He supervised the reburial of royal mummies found violated in their tombs in Thebes while governing Upper Egypt as far south as Aswan, and he married Princess HENUTTAWY, the daughter of ramesses xi and Queen tan-TAMUN (1). He also wed istemkhebe (1), who bore him MASAHARTA and Djedkhonsufankh. His other sons, PSUSENNES I and menkheperresenb (2), and daughters, ma’atkare (1) and Mutnodjmet, were the children of Henuttawy.
El-HIBA was the military fortress used by Pinudjem I. When he died in the seventh year of the reign of his son PSUSENNES I (1040-992 B. C.E.), he was buried on the western shore of Thebes in an unusual coffin of tuthmo-SIS I. His mummified remains were discovered in the DEIR-EL-BAHRI cache in 1881, beautifully wrapped and encased in leather straps. His mummy reportedly has now disappeared, after being photographed in 1888.
Pinudjem (2) (fl. 11th century b. c.e.) Priestly official of the Twenty-first Dynasty
He served as high priest of Amun in thebes in the reign of PSUSENNES I (1040-992 B. C.E.). Pinudjem was probably the son of Menkheperresenb (2) and the grandson of Pinud-jem (1). He married his niece neskhonsu and his sister ISTEMKHEBE (3), who was the mother of psusennes ii.
Pinudjem faced a terrible scandal among the temple scribes and other officials when he took office although details of the affair are not known. He retired to a temple chamber to meditate upon the matter, and the god Amun revealed the true miscreants in the temple. Actually, a scribe named Tuthmosis uncovered the evildoers, inscribing his role on the wall of a chapel in karnak. Pinudjem, however, arrested the guilty He was shown also making an offering to OSIRIS in a beautiful relief.
Neskhonsu died before Pinudjem, and she was buried in a cliff near deir el-bahri at Thebes. Pinudjem was placed in the same tomb. Istemkhebe’s mummy was so beautifully wrapped that it was left intact.
Piramesse See per-ramesses.
Pirates See sea peoples.
Pithom (1) This was a site near Ismaila, called Per-Atum or Per-Tum by the Egyptians. Located beside the canal leading from the Nile to the Red Sea, started in the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.) and refurbished by darius i (r. 521-486 b. c.e.), the area was once in the control of the Ramessids. ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) built extensively on the site.
Pithom (2) It was a site in Heliopolis, called the “Estate of Atum” and serving as a cultic center for the combined deities, re-atum. Heliopolis, originally called lunu, the “pillar,” or On, is now a suburb of modern Cairo. Pithom contained monuments and temples and was the source of cosmogonic traditions. only a single OBELISK, a monument dating to the reign of senwosret i (1971-1926 B. C.E.), remains at Pithom in Heliopolis.
“Place of Uniting of the Company” It was a mysterious site in the temple of edfu. The site was associated with the “primeval island of trampling” in creation texts and with the pay lands, the centers of creation.
Plain of salt This was a natural deposit region near WADI NATRUN in the western Delta. Salt was recovered from this plain in all times of Egyptian history
Pneb-tawy He was a divine being of ancient Egypt, called the son of horus the Elder. An obscure deity whose cult did not survive into later periods, Pneb-tawy was worshiped with his mother, the equally obscure goddess Taseunefer.
Police They were the peacekeeping units serving the rulers of Egypt and normally assigned to specified territories. one of the oldest police groups was a border unit stationed in various forts or garrisons on the eastern, western, and southern frontiers of Egypt during every era. Members of the Bedouin tribes of the Sinai were part of the border patrol in some historical periods. The WALL OF THE PRINCE, instituted by amenemhet i (r. 1991-1962 B. C.E.) in the Twelfth Dynasty, aided the border units by providing them garrisons on the eastern and western borders. The string of fortresses below the first cataract dating to the same era also served to house these units.
A state police was developed after the Second Intermediate Period (1640-1550 b. c.e.) composed of the famed medjay warriors. There had been other state units in the past, but this new police team maintained the capital and served the king personally. The backbone of the Medjay were Nubian (modern Sudanese) warriors who served kamose (r. 1550 b. c.e.) and ’ahmose (r. 1550-1525 B. C.E.) when they campaigned against the hyksos invaders and drove them out of Egypt. Starting with the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.) ’Ahmose decreed that all foreigners have papers identifying their origins. Customhouses were also formed to tax imported items.
The TEMPLE police units were normally composed of initiated members of the various cults who were charged with maintaining the sanctity of the temple complexes. The regulations concerning sex, behavior, and attitude during and before all ritual ceremonies demanded vigilance, and the temples kept their own people available to insure order and a harmonious spirit.
Police units were stationed at the borders to watch over caravans and trading expeditions and to maintain order among the foreigners who came with their own goods to conduct business within Egyptian territory. Police also watched over the various necropolises of Egypt, particularly those having royal tombs. Mortuary complexes had to be guarded by priests and police, and the vast tombs of the Theban western shore had to be patrolled on a daily basis. Other units functioned under the direction of the nome chiefs in the various districts of Egypt. Still other units, mostly military, protected the workers in the quarry and mine sites in the desert area within Egypt’s borders or in the surrounding territories, such as the sinai.
Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) (d. 48 b. c.e.) Roman general and enemy of Julius Caesar who was called Magnus (the Great)
He was born in 106 b. c.e. and rose rapidly in Roman political circles, fighting for Sulla against Marius. Pompey put down spartacus’s slave rebellion and cleared the Mediterranean Sea of pirates. He also ended the war with Mithridates of Pontus.
Marrying Julia, the daughter of Julius caesar, Pompey joined the First Triumvirate of Caesar and Crassus, although the death of Julia caused an enmity between him and her father. In 55 b. c.e. he had ptolemy xii AULETES (80-58, 55-51 b. c.e.) restored to the throne of Egypt through the efforts of Gabinus. He also ruled Rome as consul while Caesar was in Gaul. Pompey was appointed the legal guardian of cleopatra vii, the coruler of Egypt, in accordance with the will left by her father. He then entered into a civil war with Julius Caesar in 49 B. C.E. and was defeated by the latter at the battle of Pharsalus the following year. Fleeing to ALEXANDRIA, Pompey was murdered by cleopatra vii’s brother, PTOLEMY XIII (51-47 b. c.e.). His head was given to Caesar when he arrived in Alexandria.
Poseidippos of Pella (fl. third century b. c.e.) Greek poet who lived in Alexandria
His verses were discovered in a papyrus and are in the Louvre in Paris. Poseidippos described the statue on the top of the LIGHTHOUSE OF ALEXANDRIA, identifying it as an image of Zeus the Savior.
Posesh-khef This was a mortuary instrument of ancient Egypt, fashioned as a slightly forked tool. Made of horn or granite, the instrument was discovered in the tomb of MONTUHOTEP II (r. 2061-2010 b. c.e.) of the Eleventh Dynasty at deir el-bahri. The posesh-khef was used in MORTUARY RITUALS to bring about resurrection and renewed life of certain organs of the deceased. Elaborate rites were performed on the deceased, whose mummified remains were stood upright. In later historical periods statues or cartonnage images received the mystical rites.
Potter, The (fl. c. 130 b. c.e.) Mysterious prophet of Ptolemaic Egypt
He became a public figure in the reign of ptolemy viii EUERGETES II (170-163, 145-116 b. c.e.). The Potter was a devotee of the ancient Egyptian ways and announced an oracle prophecy concerning the return of “the Great Spirit,” probably that of the goddess ma’at, to Memphis, Egypt’s original capital.
When “the Great Spirit” returned to Memphis, according to the Potter, all evil would end and the foreigners would “drop like dead leaves from a dead branch.” ALEXANDRIA, the Ptolemaic center, would return to its role as “a drying place by the sea for fishermen and their nets.” The Potter’s oracle was very popular among Egyptians because of their desire for independence but was proven unreliable by the course of events. The Ptolemaic royal line was not beloved by the Egyptians. These rulers were Greek in language, customs, and marriage, and they seldom left Alexandria to visit the various nomes.
Prehirwonmef (1) (fl. 13th century b. c.e.) Royal prince of the Nineteenth Dynasty
He was the son of ramesses ii (r. 1290-1224 b. c.e.) and Queen nefertari, depicted in reliefs portraying the battle of KADESH in the fifth year of Ramesses Il’s reign. There with other princes, Prehirwonmef and his brothers were warned: “Keep yourselves clear of the battle.” Reaching maturity, Prehirwonmef was in the military service but died at a young age and was buried in thebes.
Prehirwonmef (2) (fl. 12th century b. c.e.) Royal prince of the Twentieth Dynasty
He was a son of ramesses iii (r. 1194-1163 b. c.e.) and served as a royal charioteer. Prehirwonmef was depicted with 19 of his brothers on the walls of medinet habu. His tomb in the valley of the queens at Thebes has corridors and a square hall with a side chapel.
Priests The numerous religious and temple attendants of Egypt, whose role remained constant in all historical periods, the priests kept the temple and sanctuary areas pure, conducted the cultic rituals and observances, and performed the great festival ceremonies for the public. Some served as well in specialized agencies, such as medicine or astronomy.
Soon after the unification of the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt in 3000 b. c.e., the priests were in service in major religious centers throughout the nation. Cultic rituals had been conducted in all regions before the unification, but the centralization of the government allowed them to flourish and to influence the cultural development of the entire land. The priesthood was not viewed as a separate class, however, until the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B. C.E.).
HELIOPOLIS was an early center for the solar cult in honor of re’ and atum, and many priests were engaged in the ongoing functions of the temples and shrines. The high priest of Heliopolis was called the “Great One of the Seers” and held many responsible positions in the Early Dynastic Period (2920-2575 b. c.e.) and Old Kingdom (2575-2134 b. c.e.) administrations. In some eras the head of the Heliopolitan cult was a member of the royal family, but most often the position was in the hands of a dedicated and talented commoner. The high priest of MEMPHIS, dedicated to the god ptah, was sometimes called the “Great One Who Rules The Artificers,” and many gifted men served in this capacity, including IMHOTEP, the builder of the step pyramid for djoser.
In the New Kingdom, the high priest of amun in THEBES held even greater powers. He was called the chief prophet of Amun. Other temples of Egypt came under his jurisdiction at this time, as Amun became the most powerful deity of the land. The Amunite priests were normally men dedicated to the service of their god and nation in an administrative capacity menkheperresenb (1), a high-ranking Amunite during the reign of tuthmo-SIS iii (1479-1425 b. c.e.), for example, was an architect and the head of the palace and the city of Thebes.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 B. C.E.) the priests of the temple of Amun at Thebes usurped the robes and ranks of the pharaohs while performing priestly and military duties because of ongoing rebellions in Upper Egypt. The self-proclaimed pharaohs ended with the collapse of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1070-945 B. C.E.), however, and the priesthoods remained traditional in their performances and services. The importance of such ministers of the gods faded during the Late Period (712-332 b. c.e.) but arose with the invasion of Egypt by the armies of ALEXANDER iii the GREAT (r. 332-323 b. c.e.).
The rulers of the ensuing Ptolemaic Period (304-30 B. C.E.) restored many of the priesthoods as tools for keeping the native population of the Nile Valley in check. Such rulers, however, worshiped the Greek pantheon of deities, making only the required devotions to the traditional gods of the Nile Valley on state occasions. The priests of Egypt, allowed to serve in peace, continued their own traditions and vied with one another and the imported foreign cults to provide the people with devotional events and inspirational celebrations. The traditions of these priesthoods, especially those involved in the mortuary rituals of the nation, flourished as the Greeks and then the Romans adopted the funerary customs of the land. Egyptian priests also went to other nations to spread the cults of the popular deities, such as ISIS and OSIRIS. These cults remained active during the Roman period in many cities of the world at the time.
Priests officiating in smaller temples were called web or wab. The web priest also served as a purificator during rituals and cultic rites. The sem priests were mortuary ritualists. The hem-ka priests performed funerary rites and the hem-neter assisted in the temples. The kheri-heb priest was the lector, the master of mortuary rituals for the royal clans, and was attended by the heri-shesheta, the head of mysteries (called kheri-shesheta in some sects). Other high-ranking priests of lesser temples were called uab-aa amihru, ur hekau, or neter atef, depending upon their role and their cult.
In the Old and Middle Kingdoms there were priestesses associated with the goddess cults, but during the New Kingdom their role was reduced to singing or to the various aspects of devotional groups. There is no evidence of temple prostitution in ancient Egypt, despite its existence in other contemporaneous societies.
In most periods the priests of Egypt were members of a family long connected to a particular cult or temple. Priests recruited new members from among their own clans, generation after generation. This meant that they did not live apart from their own people, and thus they maintained an awareness of the state of affairs in their communities.
Most priests in Egypt married and were succeeded by their children. Regulations concerning sex, however, were very stringent in every era, and priests were also obliged to fast before and after ceremonies and to maintain regularity in their own lifestyles and in their dress. Priests wore white linen in the temple and sandals, which were common only to the nobility or temple servants in each historical period. Leopard skins, pendants, and plaited hairpieces denoted their ranks and offices.
Temples were the center of each town or village, but they were not open to the public except on certain feast days. The priests alone entered the temples and worked in a series of chambers of increasing seclusion. The rank of the priest determined his access to interior sanctuaries. During their initial training periods, priests were taught quietude, modesty, and self-sacrifice. A spirit of dedication to the god and to the nation was also cultivated.
Priests served full-time or part-time, and for centuries the temples of Egypt mandated unity and honor among the people. Each morning the priests dressed, incensed, and anointed the statue of the god of the temple with oils. The interior shrine was then closed and sealed against intruders. At noon, purifying water was added to the holy fonts, and the sanctuaries were swept and washed again. At night more offerings were made, but the sanctuary was not opened. On certain days, in some eras several times a month, the god was carried on arks or ships into the streets or set sail on the Nile. There the oracles took place and the priests answered petitions.
“Primeval Island of Trampling” This was a mythical and cultic site in the cosmogonic traditions of Egypt. Associated with the moment of creation and the primeval MOUND, the island was ruled by a being named aa. In time Aa and wa became associated with the cult of the deity re. The exact purpose or history of this traditional site is not clear. Most temples made a reference to the Primeval Island of Trampling in their founding documents.
“Primeval Mound” It was the site of creation in Egypt’s cosmological traditions, the first piece of land to emerge from the watery chaos of NUN and associated with the concept of the pay lands. The temples of the various gods contained records of such sites, also called the High Dunes. edfu had a particularly striking commemoration of the primeval Mound, not only as a recorded tradition but also as an actual mound of earth used as a replica. Such islands offered the gods the sacred djeba, or perch, the seat of creation, and the call of the phoenix heard there brought them to life. Two divine lords, called the COMPANIONS OF THE DIVINE HEART and named WA and aa, guarded the Primeval Mound at Edfu.
The primeval Mound assumed other forms and significances over the centuries as well. Called the “primeval ISLAND OF trampling” in Edfu, the mound was viewed as the sacred domain of Horus the Elder. This island, along with the Island of Peace and the Island of Combat, was surrounded by the wa-ret, the primeval waters, and by darkness. Such sites were also honored as Ta-tenen, the Rising Lands. Most were associated with re or with NEFERTEM, the lotus deity
See also mansion of isden.
World History
