Colonies The creation of coloniae allowed Rome to extend its people, culture, and control over the hostile, foreign, or desired territories, all the while meeting the demands of the empire’s growing population.
During the early Roman times and during the Republic, colonies were established in italia (Italy) with their own constitutions and organization, enabling Rome to bring all of Italy under its domination. Special privileges were accorded to colonists, who considered themselves extensions of Rome itself, although in time all of the inhabitants of the Italian districts enjoyed full citizenship. The Senate was against foreign colonization and opposed even small settlements in Africa and Gaul, especially the colony established in 118 b. c.e. in gallia narbonensis. Few further attempts were made until two figures arrived on the scene: Julius caesar and Augustus.
Caesar extended land grants to many of his veterans, and land in Africa and Italy was set aside for retired legionaries. specifically, he settled his ex-soldiers in Campania (Italy), Carthage (Africa), and in Corinth (Greece), saving allotments of territory in Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Transalpina for his VI and X Legions. Caesar made other colonial attempts overseas by moving large elements of the crowded Roman population into a variety of settlements from Corinth to spain. Two types of colonist emerged: army veterans desirous of finding land on which to settle; and the unemployed, often poverty stricken Romans and Italians who were willing to go anywhere for better circumstances. Colonies thus gave the empire both short - and long-term solutions to its problems. First, exsoldiers could be satisfied, and the overpopulation at home could be resolved. Furthermore, once established, new colonies could provide economic power for Roman interests abroad. Finally, as it was policy not to recruit from native peoples for the army, the established Roman communities in Gaul, spain, Africa, and in the East could produce the needed recruits for centuries to come.
Augustus certainly understood this, for he pursued an aggressive process of colonization. He created settlements in the West and focused on Asia Minor to establish veterans in lush regions that were also troubled areas. under Claudius, parts of Germania were appropriated at the expense of the local tribes. other coloniae sprang up at least until the reign of Hadrian. From that time, new colonies were rare.
Essentially, a colony came into being when a group of Roman citizens, be they veterans or civilians, received from the state a grant of land in a province (or in Italy). The amount allotted to each colonist followed the regular plotting used as the standard throughout the empire (centuriation). Once measured, all the colonists’ land received the prized status of lUS italicum, in which no tribute was demanded because they were all citizens.
By the middle of the third century C. E., imperial requirements for manpower were such that the provinces produced soldiers for the army. Cities in existence prior to Roman preeminence began to request the right to change their status. Non-Roman territories could rise to a better status in the provinces by acquiring the rank of colonia. Hadrian agreed to grant colonial privileges to Italica in Spain, his native home, and other municipia received not only the honorable lUS latii but also the more valuable ius Italicum.
An improved title did not necessarily guarantee full freedom, however. Thus when Caesarea became a colony under Vespasian, only its poll tax (tributum capitis) was dropped. It did not initially claim the ius Italicum, and very few cities ever would. Caesarea finally gained its ius status under Titus, and Utica, Carthage, and Lepcis Magna were so blessed by Caracalla. Equally, the designation coloniae civium Romanorum made such a district part of the provincial elite, ahead of the title municipium, and certainly superior to the communities of the peregrini, or foreigners. The advantages were obvious, and in an Empire where commercial, social, and administrative competition was fierce, it helped to have every conceivable edge.
Colosseum The greatest structure erected during the age of the Flavian emperors (69-96 C. E.) and arguably the finest architectural achievement in the history of the Roman Empire. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater, but it became known as the Colosseum after a colossal statue of Nero that once stood nearby Its origins are to be found in the desire of the Emperor Vespasian to create for the Romans a stadium of such magnitude as to convince both them and the world of Rome’s return to unquestioned power after the bitter civil war.
Construction began in 72 or 75 C. E. Vespasian chose as the site a large plot between the Caelian and Esquiline Hills, near the lake of Stagnum Neronis and the golden HOUSE OF NERO. His intent was obvious—to transform the old residence of the despot Nero into a public place of joy and entertainment. He succeeded admirably, and his achievement would be supplemented in time by the Baths of Titus, built in order to use up the rest of the Golden House. The work proceeded feverishly and the tale that
30,000 Jews were pressed into service persists. Yet Vespasian did not live to see its completion. Titus took up the task in his reign, but it was Domitian who completed the structure sometime around 81 C. E. The official opening, however, was held on a festal day in 80. Titus presided over the ceremonies, which were followed by a prolonged gladiatorial show lasting for 100 days.
The Colosseum seated at least 45,000 to 55,000 people. Vespasian chose an elliptical shape in honor of the amphitheater of Curio, but this one was larger. There were three principal arcades, the intervals of which were filled with arched corridors, staircases, supporting substructures, and finally the seats. Travertine stone was used throughout, although some brick, pumice, and concrete proved effective in construction. The stones came from Albulae near Tivoli. The elliptically shaped walls were 620 feet by 507 feet wide at their long and short axes, the outer walls standing 157 feet high. The arena floor stretched 290 feet by 180 feet at its two axes. The dimensions of the Colosseum have changed slightly over the years, as war and disaster took their toll. Eighty arches opened onto the stands, and the columns employed throughout represented the various orders— Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—while the fourth story, the top floor, was set with Corinthian pilasters, installed with iron to hold them securely in place.
The seats were arranged in four different sections on the podium. The bottom seats belonged to the tribunes, senators, and members of the Equestrian Order. The second and third sections were for the general citizenry and the lower classes, respectively. The final rows, near the upper arches, were used by the lower classes and many women. All of these public zones bore the name maeni-ana. Spectators in the upper seats saw clearly not only the games but were shaded by the velaria as well, awnings stretched across the exposed areas of the stadium to cover the public from the sun. The canvas and ropes were the responsibility of a large group of sailors from Misenum, stationed permanently in Rome for this sole purpose.
The Flavian Amphitheater, or Colosseum, photographed around 1890 (Hulton/Getty Archive)
Every arch had a number corresponding to the tickets issued, and each ticket specifically listed the entrance, row and number of the seat belonging to the holder for that day There were a number of restricted or specific entrances. Imperial spectators could enter and be escorted to their own box, although Commodus made himself an underground passage. Routinely, the excited fans took their seats very early in the morning and stayed throughout the day.
The stories told of the games and of the ingenious tricks used to enhance the performances and to entertain the mobs could rarely exaggerate the truth. Two of the most interesting events were the animal spectacles and the famed staged sea battles of Titus, both requiring special architectural devices. In the animal spectacles the cages were arranged so expertly that large groups of beasts could be led directly into the arena. Domitian added to the sublevels of the arena, putting in rooms and hinged trapdoors that allowed for changes of scenery and the logistical requirements of the various displays. As for the sea fights, while Suetonius reports that they were held instead in the artificial lake of Naumachia and not in the amphitheater, Dio’s account disagrees. The Colosseum did contain drains for the production of such naval shows, although they were not installed until the reign of Domitian. The abundance of water nearby made the filling of the Colosseum possible, although architecturally stressful. The drains routinely became clogged, causing extensive rot in the surrounding wood. The year 248 C. E. saw the last recorded, sea-oriented spectacle called a nau-machia. (For more on the events held in the Colosseum, see GLADIATORS and ludi.)
A number of other practical features were designed for the comfort of the thousands of spectators. Spouts could send out cool and scented streams of water on hot days, and vomitoria (oversized doors) were found at convenient spots for use by those wishing to relieve themselves of heavy foods. Aside from the statues adorning the arches, the Colosseum was solid, thick, and as sturdy as the empire liked to fancy itself. The structure was Vespasian’s gift to the Romans, whose common saying remains to this day: “When the Colosseum falls, so falls Rome and all the world.”
Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus (fl. first century c. e.) Agricultural writer who was a contemporary of Seneca
From Gades, he served in the legions but then embarked on a career of writing on horticulture and nature. His first notable effort was De re rustica (On Agriculture). In twelve books he examined the field, using Virgil’s Georgics as a source and as an inspiration.
Columns Columns were erected by the Romans to honor and revere an individual or his achievements.
Although they were not as popular as other commemorative monuments (see arches), during the Republic they appeared frequently During the empire, several rulers designed massive columns, including:
Column of Trajan
Erected sometime between 108 and 113 c. e. to honor the emperor’s great victory over the Dacians (101-106). Aside from a number of extant references in the Dacian Commentaries and DIO, the column is the invaluable source of information on the conflict. It stood in the new FORUM TRAIANO and was some 100 feet high. In a spiraling design, the entire campaign unfolded through elaborate carvings and reliefs, cut from the finest available marble. Scenes of soldiers, Dacians, the Danube, and battles dominated the curving outside of the structure, while Trajan’s ashes were placed in the interior of the podium. A set of stairs led up to the top of the column, on which stood a statue nearly 30 feet high. Two libraries were constructed on either side of the column, one Greek, the other Latin.
World History
