(c. 245-323 C. E.) One of the great Christian apologists Originally from Africa, Lactantius entered the service of Emperor Diocletian, receiving from him an appointment as a teacher of rhetoric in Nicomedia. In 300, however, Lactantius was converted to Christianity and, under the laws of persecution of the time, he was removed from office. Later Emperor Constantine named him tutor to his son Crispus. Lactantius authored a number of books to propagate the faith. Between 304 and 311 he wrote the Divinae Institutiones (Divine institutions), presenting many facets of Christian doctrine with particular emphasis in attracting Latin leaders; De Mortibus Persecutorum (On the death of the persecutors), a very detailed and often lurid account of the death of the persecutors as evidence of divine punishment for their attacks on Christians. The description of the death of Emperor Galerius was notably graphic. Two other books were De Opificio Deo (On the existence of God) and Ira Dei (The wrath of God).
Laelianus, Upius Cornelius (d. c. 268 c. e.) Usurper of 268 C. E. against the Gallic Emperor Postumus Laelianus attempted his revolt at Mainz but was either defeated and killed by Postumus or died at the hands of his own troops.
Laeta, Clodia (d. 213 c. e.) One of the four Vestal Virgins put to death by Caracalla
Clodia Laeta suffered the traditional form of execution for having lost her virginity, that of burial alive. She endured her fate, screaming that Caracalla knew that she was pure.
See also crescentia, cannutia; rufina, pomponia;
SEVERA, AURELIA.
Laeti The name given to large bodies of barbarian prisoners captured in the many wars on the frontiers of the empire and settled on imperial lands. The aim of this resettlement program was to reduce the pressure of invaders in certain areas, especially on the borders, and to make the prisoners productive clients capable of supplying both food and (eventually) troops for the Roman army. Given sizeable areas to cultivate, the laeti did become active participants in the defense of the provinces, now their homes, but by their very presence they insured the Germanization of many districts of the Roman Empire.
See the section on Germanic culture in Germania.
Laetus (d. c. 198 c. e.) Legate in the army of Emperor Septimius Severus; known as either Julian or Maecius The details of Laetus’s identity remain obscure, except for several mentions in the histories. He was an officer, probably in the Pannonian legions, and thus helped to ensure
The elevation of Severus to the throne in 193. In 195, he commanded one wing of the imperial army in its campaigns against the Osroeni, relieving the besieged city of Nisibis. Two years later, Laetus was in charge of the important reserves at the battle of LUGDUNUM (Lyons), between Severus and the imperial aspirant, Clodius Albi-nus. It was written that he delayed in entering the battle, hoping that both generals would die and he would become emperor. Severus apparently did not forget this. Laetus returned to the East in 198, saving Nisibis once more, this time from the Parthians. His popularity was high among the soldiers. Refusing to allow any rival, Severus put him to death, blaming the deed on others.
Laetus, Quintus Aemilius (d. c. 192 c. e.) Prefect of the Praetorian Guard in the reign of Commodus (177-192 C. E.)
Laetus played a major role in the emperor’s assassination in 192. Laetus became prefect in 191 and served as an important adviser to Commodus. Through his influence Septimius Severus was made governor of Pannonia Superior in 191; and he may have dissuaded Commodus from burning Rome. In 192, he conspired with the imperial concubine Marcia and with the Chamberlain Eclectus to murder Commodus on the last day of the year. Laetus and Eclectus then secured the elevation to the throne of Pertinax, the prefect of the city. At first happy with his choice, Laetus destroyed the historical reputation of Commodus. Later, he found that Pertinax was not to his liking and thus stirred up the Praetorians, resulting in a cruel death for Pertinax after a reign of only 87 days. What part he had in the subsequent auctioning of the empire is unclear. He was, however, retained in his post by Didius Julianus, until Septimius Severus marched on Italy later that year. To appease Severus, Julianus executed the assassins of Commodus, Laetus among them.
Lamia, Aelius Plautius (d. 33 c. e.) An imperial officeholder throughout the reigns of Augustus (27 B. C.E.-14 c. e.) and Tiberius (14-37 c. e.)
Lamia came from an excellent family and served as consul in 3 C. E. before holding a governorship in Africa. Years later, Tiberius appointed him governor of Syria. But it was the emperor’s habit never to permit certain officials to leave Rome to take up their duties, so Lamia resided in Rome during his years as governor of Syria. Having earned some popularity from his mock position, Lamia was finally released by Tiberius, who gave him the post of prefect of the city, a position left vacant in 32 by the death of Lucius Piso. Lamia died in 33 and received the funerary honors due a censor, a lavish ceremony normally reserved for censors alone. Horace addressed Lamia in his Odes.
Langobardi One of the minor tribes of the Suebi, originally in possession of a small strip of land along the Elbe
River. In 5 C. E., they were defeated by Tiberius and forced to retire across the river to the eastern banks. They slowly made their way over barbarian Germania and fell under the control of Maroboduus, the king of the Marcomanni. In 166 C. E., the Langobardi crossed the Danube as part of the widespread crisis along the frontiers. A Roman army crushed 6,000 warriors, driving them back. The Lango-bardi waited and attacked in 568 with such success that they founded the kingdom of the Lombards. The historian Tacitus described them as never great in numbers and dependent solely upon their military skills.
Laodicea, Canons of Set of 60 canons of the Christian Church dating to the fourth century. They may have been the subject-headings of the canons that were issued by councils earlier in the century, particularly the Council of Nicaea (325) and the otherwise unknown Council of Laodicea. The canons are concerned with such subjects as heresies (Novatianism, Montanism, etc.) and the list of the scriptural books considered canonical. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Laodiceans is an apocryphal Latin epistle, included in many Latin manuscripts of the New Testament from the sixth through 15th centuries. Scholars generally agree that it dates to the fourth or fifth century and was probably written in Greek.
Lapsi A Latin term for “fallen” denoting those individuals who had denied their Christian faith during times of persecution by the Roman government. Early church teaching held that apostasy was an unforgivable sin, but, by the third century, the problem of the lapsi had grown so acute that a means of finding readmission for the repentant had to be found. St. Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258), confronted by the Decian persecutions (launched by Emperor Trajanus Decius), made the decision to readmit the lapsi but only after a suitable period of penance. Cyprian recognized three classes of the lapsi; thurificati, those who gave incense at pagan ceremonies; sacrificati, those who took part in pagan sacrifices; and libellatici, those who went so far as to secure certificates that they had conformed to legally required pagan practices. Cyprian’s decision was vigorously opposed by the Nova-tianists, who were unbending in resisting the readmission, opposition that led them to open schism. Several councils took up the issue of the lapsi, including Elvira (306), Arles (314), Ancyra (314), and Nicaea (325).
Lara Nymph who became the wife of mercury and bore him two sons, the LARES.
See also gods and goddesses of rome.
Lararium An altar, dedicated to the lares and containing their images, which was kept in a special place in each Roman household. According to the custom, a good Roman would offer prayers at the lararium each morning.
Statues of the individual Lares could be kept as well, sometimes made out of gold, as were those possessed by Vitellius.
Lares The sons of Mercury by Lara, according to Ovid. This identification, however, differs greatly from the traditional Roman understanding of these spirits. The Lares began as deities of agriculture and farming before coming to symbolize, at crossroads, a protective force of nature. As such, they were honored with shrines at the meeting places of various roads. Travelers, even sea-goers, declared the Lares to be their patrons. It was thus inevitable that they should become part of the Roman state religion; a division of their nature took place in time, as they became the Lares domestici and the Lares publici.
The Lares domestici represented those spirits of the dead (MANES) within a family who were elevated because of their goodness and importance to a higher spiritual existence, that of the Lares. They protected the family and were headed by the Lar familiaris or the founding spirit of the household (GENIUS). Any food that was dropped during a meal was not thrown away but picked up and burned in sacrifice. Other offerings were made, especially of food in the morning, accompanying the prayers made each day at the LARARIUM, the altar devoted to the Lares in every Roman household. Anytime the family moved, special care was taken to transport the lararium to the new residence.
The Lares publici functioned on a far wider scale. There were two forms: the Lares compitales and the Lares praestites. The Lares compitales protected crossroads in various sections of the city. All of Rome, and presumably the entire empire, was guarded by the Lares praestites.
See also gods and goddesses of rome; religion.
Largus, Scribonius (d. after 53 c. e.) Court physician to Claudius (ruled 41-54 c. e.)
Largus came from Arminium and served as the doctor to the emperor both in Rome and on all imperial travels, until at least 53, when the medical needs were filled by XENOPHON. Largus was noted for a book of prescriptions published with Claudius’s permission in 47. He was an expert in Greek medicine and relied upon many physicians of his time for his prescriptions.
Lateranus, Plautius (d. 65 c. e.) Nephew of the conqueror of Britannia in 43 c. e., Aulus Plautius During his lifetime, Plautius Lateranus became embroiled in two major scandals, first with Empress Valeria messal-LINA in 48 and then in the Pisonian Conspiracy in 65. Emperor claudius’s chief secretary was aware that Later-anus had become Messallina’s lover but did nothing until 48, when the empress actually married Gaius Silius, an act that brought her indiscretions to light. Because of his uncle, Lateranus was spared by Claudius but was ousted from the Senate. In 65, he became one of the ringleaders in a plot to assassinate Nero. He despised the tyrant, despite the emperor’s gift to him—the restoration of his rights lost in the Messallina affair. Lateranus thus had much to lose when the plot was uncovered. Lateranus reportedly met his fate with bravery and silence at the Porta Mag-giore. Tacitus described him as a big man, firm and resolute in character. Juvenal wrote of his luxurious palace on the Caelian Hill as an example of fleeting wealth.
Latifundia Large agricultural estates that were established in Italy during the second century b. c.e. and that were formed out of the distribution by lease of a portion of the ager publicus, or public land. The majority of recipients were members of the Patrician class, and the land distribution came largely at the expense of peasant farmers who were compelled to sell their small plots after it became clear they could not compete with the large productive estates.
The latifundium characteristically had a villa and a population of slaves who could be used to grow crops and raise animals. The estate thus had considerable financial potential because of the capital investment its owner could inject into it. As the peasants on the surrounding smaller farms were forced to sell, the latifundium acquired their fields at low cost. The latifundia spread to the provinces, but they never reached the same size of those in Italy. During the imperial era, the cost of slaves became so high that latifundia were replaced gradually by the patrocinium, which was farmed by coloni. Still later, in the face of social and political decline in the empire, many of the old estates were abandoned, especially in the provinces.
Latin language The Latin language belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages and thus has a relationship to Greek, Germanic, and Celtic. It appeared first in the Italian Peninsula around the eighth century b. c.e., most likely penetrating from across the Alps and Appenines. It is certain that other Indo-European languages were spoken in Italy, but these today are little known. Greek was spoken in southern Italy, and Celtic was used in the north. A number of non-Indo-European languages were also spoken, namely Etruscan, which centered in Etruria. Little has survived of the Etruscan language, save for inscriptions, dedications, and epitaphs. While other languages, such as Greek and Italic dialects influenced the development of Latin, Etruscan did not make a substantial impression on the language of Rome.
Latin was originally spoken in the city of Rome and in Latium. As the city expanded its power and influence, the tongue spread into neighboring regions and then into other parts of the Mediterranean as Rome founded colo-nia. Each colony became a Latin speaking urban center, united by language, culture, law, and custom to Rome.
As the empire expanded through conquest, Latin became the primary language of government in all of the provinces and one of the most obvious symbols of Roman domination. Nevertheless, there was no official command for the subjugated peoples to master the Latin tongue, and native languages remained in use, such as Celtic, Syriac, and, of course, Greek. Greek was the primary lingua franca of the Hellenic regions of the empire, termed, koin. Among the Romans themselves, Greek was considered the language of culture and was seen as a prerequisite for a true education. With the division of the empire in the fourth century into eastern and western spheres, Greek’s ascendancy in the eastern provinces was virtually codified, while in the western provinces, Latin remained the dominant language of culture and the dimming civilization of Rome. Latin held on as the official language of imperial government until the reign of Justinian in the sixth century.
Latin is divided into several eras. Archaic or Early Latin endured until around 100 b. c.e. when it was superseded by so-called Classical Latin. This golden age of Latin extended from 100 b. c.e. to 14 C. E. and the end of the Augustan principate, a period that boasted some of Latin’s greatest figures, including cicero, virgil, and HORACE. The period that followed, from around 17 to 150, is termed the Silver Era. It was marked by a decline in the overall quality of Latin writing in direct comparison to the golden age. There were still notable literary figures, such as seneca, tacitus, and suetonious, but the times were characterized by the florid use of Latin and an obvious effort to emulate a bygone time.
The spoken Latin language used by the Romans varied considerably depending on the level of education and class of the speaker. Colloquial Latin, sermo cotidianus, was spoken by the educated. It is demonstrated in the letters of the Romans to each other and in literature and plays. TERENCE, for example, wrote most of his plays in a style of sermo cotidianus. Similarly, it was found in Horace’s Epistles and Satires.
In sharp contrast to the sermo cotidianus was the language of the streets, the uneducated, and the lower classes. Termed vulgar Latin, it was used principally in Rome and the cities and districts of italy. it was a more casual, less structured way of speaking, with less attention to proper declensions. An excellent example of vulgar Latin in the first century c. E. was preserved in literary form in the Satyricon by petronius; a later example of Vulgar Latin is found in the Itinerarium Egeriae (The Itinerary of Egeria, c. 400 C. E.). Graffiti, such as that preserved in pompeii, is also an excellent source of details on the language of the common people.
The Latin language endured as the chief language of culture in the West even after the demise of the Western Roman Empire in 476 C. E. It had already been embraced by the migratory peoples who were reshaping what became Europe and was essential in providing the structure to the subsequent Romance languages. Latin was also the dominant language of the Christian Church and remains today the official language of the Roman Catholic Church.
Latium The region of Italy in the middle of the peninsula, surrounded by Etruria, Samnium, and Campania, and bordered to the north by the Tiber River, to the south by the Volturnus. Latium was known for its beauty and fertility, and it was dominated by Mount Albanus, just south of Rome. originally inhabited, according to the folk traditions, by the pelasgians, the primitive tribesmen of Italy, Latium eventually became the home of the Latini, the Latins. The Latins were important in the foundation and development of Rome, and their territory, once conquered by the Romans, served as the first area of colonization. During the years of the Roman Empire, Latium was combined with Campania as a district of Italy It was bisected by two major roads, the Via Appia and the Via Latina.
See also italia.
Law The Roman legal system was founded on two key documents. The first was the Twelve Tables, issued c. 451-450 B. C.E. The second was the Corpus luris Civilis organized by Emperor Justinian and promulgated c. 540 C. E., which compiled the entire body of Roman law for the Byzantine Empire. From these two principal sources, supplemented by the Codex Theodosianus of Emperor Theodosius II in 438, almost the whole of Western legal tradition received its foundation.
HISTORY
The Twelve Tables were drafted by a committee of 10 magistrates (the decemviri legibusscribundis, or “ten men for writing the laws”). The particulars of the laws are preserved only in fragments or in quotes from extant writings, but it is known that early legal interpretation was left to priests. over time, the interpretation of laws fell to jurists. The Twelve Tables were never repealed and technically remained in effect until the time of Justinian. The legal system in the early Republic was marked by its formalism and adherence to established norms. These changed gradually in the hands of the praetors, who took upon themselves the task of issuing edicts and, when necessary, making reforms.
Technically, the creation of new laws was the prerogative of the Comitia Centuriata (the main legislative body of the Republic), and the laws (leges) that were passed were identified by the names of the magistrates who initially proposed them. From the third century, the chief mechanism for establishing new laws was the plebiscitum, laws proposed by the people. From 218 b. c.e., the Comi-tia only rarely passed new laws, leaving it to magistrates and jurists to decide what was best in terms of their meaning and application. The senate was involved chiefly in an advisory capacity, although its advice, in the form of the SENATUS CONSULTUM, did have the binding effect of law. In this way, the senatus consultum helped prepare the way for the imperial system that commenced with the Augustan principate (27 B. C.E.-14 C. E.).
From the time of Augustus, the notion of the plebiscita and other legal structures of the Republic were gradually curbed and replaced by the imperial will. As a mechanism of the emperors, the Senate emerged as the chief legislative body of the empire, and the senatus con-sultum assumed full legal status. This was not because of an increase in power on the part of the Senate but because it was a useful body for the emperors to use in promulgating new laws.
The emperors themselves also issued decrees that, by the second century, carried the full weight of law. Imperial pronouncements, termed CONSTITUTIONES (constitutions), took various forms, including decrees (decreta), rescripts (rescripta), and edicts (edicta). As interpretation of law became increasingly important, the emper-ors—assisted by legal experts and assorted secretaries— spent much of their time in legal matters answering and issuing rescripts. These were replies to assorted legal questions that had been raised in the course of legal cases, as well as petitions. Such replies were a key element in the further development of Roman law as it came to be practiced.
Traditionally, the body of Roman laws, the IUS CIVILE, applied only to Roman citizens. Others outside the Roman citizenship, fell under the authority of the ius gentium and under the particular laws of their own country or city when permitted by the Roman governors. The sharp differentiation, which was so crucial to many citizens because of its rights of appeal (as in the famous case of St. Paul who made an appeal to the emperor), ended in 212 C. E. In that year, Emperor Caracalla granted universal citizenship. Technically, the differences between the ius civile and ius gentium should have ceased, but there remained for many years two kinds of justice, one for long-standing citizens and the other for recent ones. Equally, the change in status opened up the ius civile to many forms of local interpretation, thereby influencing Roman law in general through appeals and rescripts when local customs were accepted as fully legal and binding on all citizens.
The structure of the imperial system centralized law in the hands of the emperor and so, by extension, the imperial advisers as well. The chief legal figures in the imperial era were the jurists, such as Ulpian and Pap-inian. Held in high esteem by the Roman courts, their opinions were sought on cases and other legal matters by both emperors and magistrates. Their responses, responsa, to questions became important consultative documents in case law
Relentless centralization of government and power in the hands of the emperor, however, made the value of responsa less significant, from the third century onward, in favor of rescripta.
From the time of Constantine the Great (d. 337 C. E.), Roman law entered what is termed the age of Vulgar Law Because of the general decay that crept into the educational system, the quality of legal practice declined steadily. This deterioration was hastened by the political instability in the West from the early fifth century, the loss of a command of the earlier juridical writings, and the wide influence of Germanic peoples settled in the empire. Large elements of Roman law survived the ruins of the Roman Empire in the West thanks to three late imperial developments. The first, was the Codex Theo-dosianus of 438. Emperor Theodosius II decreed that all constitutiones from the time of Constantine the Great be collected and preserved. Second, the successor to the empire in the West, such as the Visigoths and the Burgundians, incorporated elements of Roman law in their own codes (e. g., the Lex Romana Visigothorum). Finally, in the Eastern Empire, a revival of classical learning sparked a renewed interest in earlier Roman law
The revival in the East made possible the decision of Emperor Justinian to appoint in 540 a commission to amass the entire body of Roman law. Their work was completed in the Corpus Iuris Civilis (Body of civil law), actually a compilation of different collections, including the Digest (a collection of commentaries by earlier jurists) and the Codex Justinianus (a collection of consti-tutiones). The Corpus luris Civilis was the code of Roman law that formed the basis of virtually all succeeding legal developments.
LEGAL SYSTEM
The Twelve Tables of Roman law did not establish in any sense a clear set of codes or laws governing criminal offenses. Rather, Roman criminal justice was a largely loosely applied structure, with different courts and jurisdictions each having a role to play While unorganized by modern standards, Roman justice was harsh in its application, and unmerciful in its punishments. By custom, trials and court cases in early Rome were tried before the kings. Justice was later dispensed by magistrates and then, at the command of the Senate, by officially appointed courts. Under Sulla in the second century B. C.E., criminal courts (quaestiones) were widened to handle such crimes as treason and corruption. Praetors were the chief judges of these courts, although they declined in use during the life of the empire.
The system that became established for much of the imperial era was for criminal cases to be tried in one of several ways. For members of the patrician class, senators, and in special circumstances, the Senate served as a kind of supreme criminal tribunal. The emperor also retained the privilege of trying cases himself, a right that took on grim political ramifications under vindictive emperors such Gaius Caligula and Nero.
The average Romans, of course, rarefy found themselves before such exalted judges. Most cases were handled by civil courts or by a number of lower courts under the authority of the urban prefect or the praetorian prefect. Outside of Rome, there were two basic forms of criminal justice until 212 c. e. and the decree of Caracalla making all inhabitants citizens of the empire. For nonRoman citizens, local courts might be permitted to exercise justice according to their agreements with Rome. In most cases, however, cases were handled by the local Roman governors, who would travel throughout the cities and towns hearing various disputes. Cases involving civil law were the purview of local courts, although in neither criminal nor civil law was it permitted for a Roman citizen to be tried anywhere save before a representative of the Roman Empire. The trial of St. Paul is considered a classic example of the rights of appeal of the Roman citizen. St. Paul was tried before the local Roman officials and, as was his right, he appealed directly to the emperor.
Criminal law recognized two distinct types of offenses, private and public. Private offenses were settled through recompense, usually the payment of whatever financial amount was deemed suitable to the injured party. Public crimes were subject to brutal public punishment, varying in harshness depending on the nature of the crime. Assorted minor punishments included public flogging and confiscation of property Imprisonment was not common, as Roman justice saw it as unlikely that years in a prison would be conducive to reforming a criminal’s character. The various forms of banishment were more extreme. These ranged from exile to work in the mines (deportatio in metalla), banishment to the gladiator schools (in ludos), and deportatio, meaning that the criminal was sent away forever from Rome, often to a small and dreadful island, as happened to Julia, daughter of Emperor Augustus, and many of the enemies of Emperor Tiberius. Exile or banishment usually entailed a loss of Roman citizenship. The death penalty (poena capitis) was applied frequently, for such crimes as murder and treason, and also for impiety—hence the persecutions of Christians. The most common forms of execution were crucifixion, burning, decapitation, and being thrown to wild animals. The forms of execution used against the Christians were limited only by the imaginations of the Roman authorities throughout the empire.
Suggested Readings: Bauman, Richard A. Lawyers in Roman Republican Politics: A Study of the Roman Jurists in their Political Setting, 316-82 b. c.e. Munich, Ger.: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1983; Buck, Robert J. Agriculture and Agricultural Practice in Roman Law. Wiesbaden, Ger.: E Steiner, 1983; Cracknell, D. G. Roman Law: Origins and Influence. London: HLT, 1990; Crone, Patricia. Roman, Provincial, and Islamic Law: The Origins of the Islamic Patronate. Cambridge, U. K.: Cambridge
University Press, 1987; Diosdi, Gyorgy. Contract in Roman Law: From the Twelve Tables to the Glossators. Translated by J. Szabo. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1981; Erier, Bruce W The Rise of the Roman Jurists: studies in Cicero’s Pro Caecina. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1985; Gaius. The Institutes of Gaius. Translated by W M. Gordon and O. E Robinson. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988; Gardner, Jane E. Women in Roman Law & Society. London: Croom Helm, 1986; Honore, Tony
Emperors and Lawyers. London: Duckworth, 1981;-
—. Ulpian. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982; Justinian’s Institutes. Translated by Peter Birks & Grant McLeod. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987; Mommsen, Theodore, ed. The Digest of Justinian. Translated by Alan Watson. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985; Stein, Peter. The Character and Influence of the Roman Civil Law: Historical Essays. London: Hambledon Press, 1988; Studies in Justinian’s Institutes: In Memory of J.
A. C. Thomas, ed., P G. Stein and A. D. E. Lewis. London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1983; Thomas, Ph. J. Introduction to Roman Law. Deventer, Neth.: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1986; Treggiari, Susan. Roman Marriage: lusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford, U. K.: Clarendon Press, 1991; Ullmann, Walter. Law and Jurisdiction in the Middle Ages. Edited by George Garnett. London: Variorum Reprints, 1988; Watson, Alan. Contract of Mandate in Roman Law. Aalen: Scientia
Verlag, 1984; -. The Evolution of Law. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985; ———. The Law of Persons in the Later Roman Republic. Aalen, Ger.: Scien-
Tia Verlag, 1984;-. The Law of Property in the Later
Roman Republic. Aalen, Ger.: Scientia Verlag, 1984;- —. Roman Slave Law. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.
Lawrence (Laurence) (d. 258 c. e.) One of the most famous martyrs of the early Christian church
Lawrence was one of the seven deacons of Rome during the reign of Pope (later St.) Sixtus II, dying a mere four days after the pontiff. According to tradition as preserved by St. Ambrose, Prudentius, and others, Lawrence was ordered by the prefect to hand over the treasures of the church, whereupon he gathered the poor and sick, presented them to the Roman official, and said, “Here is the treasure of the church.” He was then supposedly executed by being roasted on a grid. Scholars prefer to maintain that he was beheaded like Sixtus II. Lawrence was buried on the road to Tivoli, on the Via Tiburtina, and a chapel was built on the site in the early fourth century, where the church of St. Lawrence-Outside-the-Walls currently stands. He is mentioned in the Canon of the Mass.
Legatus (legate) An imperial officer who served as the lieutenant of the emperor and fulfilled a variety of duties, political and military. Legates (Latin plural, legati) were invariably members of the senatorial class and had served as PRAETORS in their passage through the cursus hono-RUM. In the Republic, legates emerged as useful officials for provincial administration, aiding the governors of provinces as loyal deputies, envoys to local communities and as commanders of all troops stationed in the region. This last task became their main duty by the time of Caesar, as they assumed the rank of general in charge of one LEGION each. This system was concretized by the end of the Republic, as Caesar distributed his army of the Gallic Wars to several legati, including the gifted Titus Labi-enus. Throughout the Civil War (see civil war, first triumvirate), the legates grew in number and were such a mainstay of legionary organization that they earned a major place in the imperial establishment of Augustus in 27 B. C.E.
In the Roman Empire, every legion had its own legate, known as a legatus legionis, who was answerable to Rome but at times also to the governor of the province in which he was stationed. As legions belonged almost exclusively to the imperial provinces, their commanding officers were normally legates. The position of legate in charge of an entire province was the chief source of aggrandizement for the rank. Known as legati Augusti pro praetore, these legates were appointed to each imperial province (with several exceptions) and controlled all troops within the province. Where there was more than one legion, the legati were answerable to the legatus Augusti pro praetore.
Two provinces did not follow this form of government. in Africa the legion (and its legatus) were originally under the proconsul of Africa, as it was a prestigious senatorial province. During the reign of Gaius Caligula, however, the legate was made independent of the proconsul, henceforth patrolling the Numidian region and the African frontiers while the proconsul cared for the legal and economic needs of the province. Around 238 C. E., the Legion, the iii Augusta, was disbanded by Gordian iii after its chief, Capellianus, had marched on Gordian i and ii and killed them both at Carthage. The other special case was EGYPT. Being a crucial economic and strategic possession, Egypt was ruled by a prefect (see EGYPT, PREFECT of), not by a legatus Augusti pro praetore. The legions stationed there, of varying number, belonged to his jurisdiction.
Legati were also sent by the emperor on missions to other countries, served as advisers in campaigns, and even acted as lieutenants to proconsuls in senatorial provinces. The legates were unchanged in their positions until the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian, when the differentiation between imperial and senatorial provinces was ended. Later, with the changes made in the army, the rank of legate underwent further transformation.
Legions The basic fighting force of the Roman Empire. The legions for three centuries had no rivals for discipline, training, ability, and sheer military prowess. Through its soldiers the empire was able to control vast stretches of territory and entire peoples.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEGIONS
From the earliest times the Romans found organization on the battlefield to be a decided advantage over their enemies. At first the army was divided into various classes, according to the ranks of citizenship, the Servian model as established by King Servius Tullius (578-535
B. C.E.). While a further breakdown was made into smaller formations called centuries, these units joined together to form a Greek-influenced phalanx, fighting in the traditional hoplite, or Greek, fashion. The legendary Camillus (early fourth century B. C.E.) instituted reforms by creating the manipulus or maniple, a tactical joining of two centuries totaling between 120 and 160 men. Camillus made the legions more efficient by introducing a precise chain of command, with centurions of several grades and officers (TRiBuNES) to command them.
Such was the basic system in place during Rome’s expansion throughout the Punic Wars (264-146 B. C.E.). With victory in that long series of struggles, came the inevitable strains of overseas possessions. No longer could the legions of the Republic be kept in the field for a short period and then disbanded. Longer service and permanent legions were necessary. The problems in standardizing such a force were centered in recruiting and in opposition from the upper classes, who found that chronic war was a hindrance to wealth and stability.
The answer was found by the powerful consul Marius, the architect of Rome’s legionary superiority. He allowed all classes to join the army, ending the crisis of recruiting while placating the upper social stratas. Previously, a potential soldier was required to prove an estate valued at 4,000 asses. The maniple was reduced to a mere administrative entity. Cohorts now emerged as the standard tactical organization. Ten cohorts, averaging 480 men, added up to a legion, forming in battle into three lines of four cohorts in the first, and three in the second and third. Changes in configuration could be made according to the demands of battle or the brilliance of the general in charge.
Marius’s reforms had a long-lasting impact on the legions and on Roman warfare in general. The legions were now flexible and interchangeable, no longer organized by economic class. There remained still a sense of the temporary, for the wars of the Republic gained territory for Rome but drained the financial resources so that legions had to be disbanded. The veterans of these units were turned into colonists and placed on frontier lands to stabilize the regions and to open up new areas of influence. Maintained legions, however, became better fighting forces with each season, developing a definite unity
The Roman legions, from Trajan's Column (Courtesy Fr. Felix Just, S. J.)
And loyalty to their commanders, an emotion feared by Rome’s political elements.
Julius CAESAR found the Roman army a ready-made instrument for smashing his enemies and achieving greatness. He took over, with the approval of the Senate, the regions of Illyricum, Gallia Cisalpina, and Gallia Trans-alpina in 59 b. c.e. For the next eight years he conquered the Gauls, made two trips into Britain, crossed into Germany, and generally pacified the Gallic regions in now legendary campaigns. By the time he had finished his GALLIC WARS, the Senate was terrified of his ambitions and of the weapons he had forged through a mixture of incessant combat, discipline, and loyalty.
The ensuing civil war (49-45 b. c.e.) proved that Caesar’s legions were the finest field army that Rome would ever possess. in the hands of a military genius, no one, not even pompey the great, could hope to defeat it. From 49-44 b. c.e., Caesar crushed the Pompeians all across the Roman world, in Spain, Africa, and Greece. Few generals could ask their troops to eat grass, as Caesar did at dyrrhachium in 48, or withstand a siege by an entire city as he did at Alexandria in that same year.
The Civil War, however, initiated a new trend. Whereas Caesar utilized a long-standing army, his opponents, most notably Pompey, assembled hurriedly as many legions as possible, so that, by the time that Caesar had decimated the Pompeians in Spain, Pompey had 100,000 men available. Most were unreliable, as was proven at the battle of pharsalus in 48, but this proliferation continued until the final settlement of Rome’s political future at actium in 31 b. c.e., with the victory of Octavian (Augustus).
Besides the many sociopolitical, economic, religious, and financial crises facing him as emperor, Augustus was confronted with a bloated military system and wide frontiers to protect when he came to the throne. At the end of the Civil Wars there were numerous armies and some 60 legions. First he discharged over 100,000 soldiers, sending most to the provinces, where they helped forge colonies. Any troublesome contingents were removed; once fully organized, the 28 remaining legions were sent out to the provinces under his direct supervision. There they remained, watching the borders, maintaining the peace and enforcing Augustus’s will.
TRAINING AND EQUIPMENT
One of the secrets to the success of the Roman legions was the masterful job traditionally done in training the troops. Routinely, a centurion handled the drilling, aided by his staff. Discipline, instruction, and preparation were honed, especially in those provinces where active service did not always entail warfare.
In his De re militari, Vegetius wrote in considerable detail of the gruelling techniques used to make the miles, the common soldier, ready for battle. Aside from camp duties, they were forced to march with heavy packs for great distances and in precise formations. Running and swimming were important; most essential of all was proficiency in weapons.
The legionaries were walking arsenals. Their primary weapon was the gladius, or sword. Post exercises involved a wooden or actual sword, used against a post designed to resemble an opponent. When not fighting a dummy, the recruit was given the armatura or gladiator drill where two adversaries sparred together. (trajan was an admirer of the armatura.) Other weapons included the pilum, or javelin. Early versions had a shaft so thick that it could be hurled back at the thrower by his opponent. Modifications made the pointed end snap off on an opponent’s shield, rendering the shaft relatively useless.
The uniform of the legions was substantially unchanged for many centuries. A linen undercloth was worn with a tunic or kilt of wool. In cold or very rugged climates trousers (bracae) could be worn, while sandaled wrappings and thick soles protected the feet.
Walls, COLUMNS, and the coinage of ancient Rome preserved a great deal of information about the body of armor of the Roman legions. Changes in style reflected military fashion for an era, as well as adaptations for purposes of combat. One kind of protection was the lorica segmentata, strips of armor with reinforced leather as displayed on Trajan’s Column; it was eventually replaced by two newer designs, the lorica squamata and the lorica hamata. The squamata was the scale armor with individual rings woven together, the style illustrated on Constantine’s Arch, while the hamata was actually heavy mail, far less flexible than those worn previously and a throwback to the days of Julius Caesar. Helmets were normally of bronze or iron, with a neck protector and cheek guards.
The shield (scutum) of the legionary was changed considerably from the early days of the empire to the third century C. E. A traditionally oval shape was redesigned to a rectangular form with curved edges, which became straight in time. By the age of the Severan dynasty, an oval shape was used once more, remaining the most common type until the fall of the Western Empire in the fifth century c. e. A number of motifs were used to decorate the shields; the best known was the lightning rod of Jupiter. Each scutum was owned personally by the soldier, who put both his name and the name of his centurion inside. The general quality of the equipment declined after the fourth century c. e.
ORGANIZATION
Discipline and training were possible only if organization existed within the legion. While the miles, or common soldiers, were the lifeblood of the army, the entire system depended upon the centurions, 60 per legion. Overseeing all centurions in a legion was the primus pilus (or primi-pilus), head of the first century of the first cohort. He wielded more actual power than the tribunes. Beneath him were his primi ordines, all in the first cohorts, followed by the centurions of the remaining cohorts, serving as pilus prior, pilus posterior, princeps prior, princeps posterior, hastatus prior, and hastatus posterior. An optio or aide, selected for the post, was given to every centurion, and could be promoted to the centurionate if he performed well.
Above the centurions were the tribunes and the prae-fectus castrorum, or the prefect of the camp. The tribunes numbered six in the legion but only rarely saw combat, as they came from the Equestrian class, were young and served in the army only in the hope of bettering themselves politically. The senior tribune, a member of the senatorial class (tribunus laticlavius), viewed his time in the legions as a necessary step in the cursus honorum or government bureaucracy. Whereas the tribunes were at the start of their careers, the praefectus castrorum had already labored for many years as a primus pilus. As prefect of the camp, he headed the entire legion in the absence of the legate (commanding general) or senior tribune and had the respect of every soldier of every cohort.
The officers of the legion were supported by a large staff. Business and administration was the duty of clerks under the authority of the cornicularius. Accounts, pay, supplies, personnel records, and transfers all had to be kept in perfect order, as chaos would result from a major breakdown. Finally, the legions also possessed specialists and cavalry. Special soldiers, who had such needed skills as engineering, writing, and surveying, formed a unique corps within the legions. As they were needed to fulfill the tasks of building roads, selecting camps, or composing reports, from the time of Hadrian they became known as immunes, because of their immunity to regular service.
Armor and weapons of Roman legions of the time of Constantine the Great, from the Arch of Constantine (Hulton/GettyArchive)
The Romans never used massed cavalry, but every legion had its own corps of riders. Attached probably to the headquarters and under the command of an optio equitum, the horsemen numbered some 120. Their value in the field derived from their mobility and skill as scouts. Against heavier or more dangerous cavalry, such as the Parthians, they could be liabilities.
Life for a soldier was never easy, for punishments were always handed out mercilessly, and there was the danger of sudden and unexpected campaigning. Some postings were better than others in the empire. The legions in Syria in 69 c. e. were induced to revolt partly because of rumors that they were going to be transferred from their comfortable Syrian environment to Germany.
Length of service in the first century c. e. was 20 years, as compared to 26 for the navy, 25 for the auxiliaries and 16 for the praetorian guard. Pay was always a point of contention with the soldiers, and mutinies occurred (in 5 and in 14 C. E., for example) as they demanded better reward for incessant fighting. From the first century b. c.e. to the time of Domitian, pay was 225 denarii; from Domitian’s reign to that of Septimius SEVERUS, 300 denarii; under Severus around 450 denarii; and under caracalla, 675 denarii.
Increased disorder surrounded payments for the remaining imperial era. centurions received a higher amount according to seniority and rank within the centu-rionate. Upon retirement, a soldier received a payment (3,000 denarii in the time of Augustus) and a plot of land. Colonies throughout the Roman Empire were populated with former soldiers, each having gained his sum of money from the aerarium militare (the military treasury) and the praemia militiae (military retirement fund).
LEGIONARY CAMPS
In early Roman history, legions did not serve on a permanent basis and there was thus no need for any permanent encampments. As the empire was established, however, legions became stationed in distant provinces, many of them barely pacified. Longer term camps were soon needed, followed by permanent forts and fortresses. Winter camps (hiberna) and summer camps (castra aestiva) were used initially, with greater defenses constructed for the winter camps. Eventually, permanent camps were erected, termed castra stativa.
There were two basic types of castra, the Polybian and the Hyginian. The Polybian camp is so named from the description of Roman castra by Polybius in the second century b. c.e. The castra he described could accommodate two entire legions, along with cavalry, supplies, and auxiliary troops. In all, it could hold more than 16,000 soldiers and 1,800 cavalry The Hyginian camp was named after Hyginus, a writer of the imperial era, and his work De Munitionibus Castrorum (On the defenses of camps). This type of camp could hold three legions as well as auxiliary troops, for a total of 40,000 troops. While larger and better defended than the Poly-bian castra, the Hyginian castra were still very similar in shape and basic design. Both camps were square or rectangular, with the praetorium resting at their center and a space between the tents and the ramparts (the intervallum) that safeguarded the tents from missile attack should the camp be besieged. The essential requirement for any Roman camp was that it be surveyed and erected with the greatest possible speed and efficiency For that reason, each camp was largely identical to any other camp, with only minor modifications allowed for geography or specific military circumstances.
The need for the garrisoning of permanent camps in the provinces and especially along the provincial frontiers led to the rise of standing forts and fortresses. The fort was a camp used by auxiliaries and some legionnaires and generally was considerably smaller than a fortress. The latter was used as a garrison for a legion. In the first and second centuries C. E., both types of camps relied upon the traditional square or rectangular shape for the encampment. As the forts and fortresses were intended to be longstanding structures, however, a number of modifications were made in defenses, size, and internal composition.
The permanent camp was given strengthened defenses, including significantly more reliable perimeters. These might include extra pits and stakes, deadly hedges of sticks, thorns, and branches, and additional towers and stronger gates. The towers might also be equipped with ballistae and other projectiles. The defenses alone made the capture of a fort or fortress an ambitious undertaking for an enemy, and even a large enemy force faced many challenges in storming a Roman fort that was defended with determination.
Early forts and fortresses were constructed of wood, but practical experience in Germania and Britannia prompted engineers to build forts out of stone. Additionally, tents were replaced by more formal barracks, and warehouses, granaries, storerooms, armories, and prison rooms were all added. The permanent nature of the installation also prompted a change in the living and working arrangement of the commander. While in the castra a general might be housed in a praetorium, in the fort or fortress, a commander used two sets of quarters. The praetorium became his personal residence, and the day-to-day business of the command was centered in the principia, or headquarters. The principia also housed the standards of the legion, in a shrine, the sacellum. Baths were also installed in fortresses for the use of the soldiers, as were amphitheaters. The latter were built for entertainments, but they also doubled as drill yards. When well supplied, the legionary fortress was very much like a self-sufficient city. Examples of these have been found all over Europe, especially in Germany and in Britain. As many of the legions were permanently stationed on some frontier, many veterans chose to retire lived near the camps.
THE AUXILIA
From the days of the Republic, Rome had utilized the armies of its client states and federated tribes, as well as the legions, for the defense of the empire. These troops were the auxilia, or auxiliaries, of the imperial army
Under Augustus, recruitments were a major part of the legionary system in the more reliable provinces, such as Germania, Africa, and the Danube. The possibility of full Roman citizenship after 25 years of service was a great enticement. Basically, the auxilia served on the frontiers, patrolling, watching, holding the limes (border), and acting as support to the legions in battle.
There were three kinds of unit in the auxiliaries: alae or cavalry, infantry, and mixed formations of the two. The alae (from the Latin for “wing”) normally served on the flanks in an engagement, as the Romans liked to secure their infantry in the middle and then have horsemen available to exploit any break in the enemy line. Auxiliary horsemen numbered 512 per quingenaria (unit), divided into 16 turmae. Infantry was categorized into bodies of soldiers either 500 strong (cohors quingenaria) or 1,000 strong (cohors miliaria), broken down into centuries. Here the auxiliaries most closely resembled the legions, for they had centurions and an internal organization like that of the legion. Equipment was similar, as was weaponry, but in a pitched battle with an obstinate foe, no legate would ever risk victory by depending solely upon these troops.
Mixed auxilia of infantry and cavalry, the cohors equi-tata, were for an unclear purpose. Aside from the aid that they gave their infantry counterparts, the mounted elements of any cohort were posted with the regular alae in a conflict and were less well equipped. Their numbers probably varied, for the quingenaria and miliaria: 480 infantry and 128 cavalry for the former, and 800 infantry and 256 cavalry for the latter.
At the start of the empire, it was policy never to use an auxiliary formation in its own province, for fear of divided loyalties and poor discipline. While such a prohibition grew lax over the years, it was still common to see Spaniards in the East and Germans in Britannia. As the pool of recruits from the more Romanized provinces dried up, it became necessary to find troops from the more remote areas of the empire. This led to an increased barbarization and Germanization of the Roman world.
THE LATE EMPIRE
Throughout the history of the Roman Empire, the role of the legions in determining the succession and the very direction of Rome’s destiny was considerable. Starting in 69 C. E., through the second and third centuries, governors and generals were proclaimed by their troops. Civil wars followed with such appalling regularity that no emperor could hope to rule effectively without the support of the legions stationed in various parts of the Roman world. The third-century crisis was made more severe by the constant upheavals of the soldiery.
DIOCLETIAN and later Constantine took drastic steps to curb such practices. Along with the massive overhaul of the provincial system, came a reform of the imperial defenses. No longer would the legions be distributed to the provinces under command of a potentially ambitious governor. Henceforth, there were to be two divisions in the army, the limitanei and the comitatenses.
The limitanei were to watch the frontiers only. They protected the borders, never moving from their area unless specifically ordered to do so in support of some other limitanei body that was threatened by attack. While the limitanei did not move, the comitatenses, the main field army near the emperor or under the command of his prefects, was always on the march. Each comitatensis was composed of legiones palatinae (the palatini) and the vex-illationes palatinae. The legions, as they had been known, were replaced by the 1,000-1,500-man legiones palatinae, grouped five at a time into a comitatenses. Joining them was the cavalry, now called the vexillationes, probably numbering the same. Their increased importance in Roman warfare reflected the change of tactics in dealing with swarming barbarian horsemen such as the Huns (see adrianople). Auxiliaries called the auxilia palatina, in cohorts of about 500 men, continued to exist.
Discipline in the armies of the later Roman Empire was markedly inferior to that of earlier eras. Germanic troops, chaos in the West and a deterioration of the social system, all contributed to the decline in the capacities of the soldiers. The emergence of the powerful MAGISTER MILITUM aided the breakdown of military unity As the titles magister equitum, peditum, or militum passed into the hands of German generals, the fate of the West was sealed. In the East, Emperor LEO made certain that his domain did not fall prey to the barbarians, by recruiting his forces from the provinces of the East and relying upon his Isaurian lieutenant, zeno, to lead them.
TABLE OF KNOWN IMPERIAL LEGIONS
The following are the legions that are known to have been recruited and to have served during the imperial era. The legions were reorganized at the command of Augustus at the end of the civil wars. There was some confusion in the numbering system, as new legions were often given the same number as already existing ones, so that there might be several legions with the number I or III, for example. If a legion was destroyed, its number was retired permanently. The most famous example of this was the loss under General Varus in Germania at the Teutoburg Forest of Legions XVII, XVIII, and XIX in 9
C. E. These legions were never replaced. The multiplicity of numbers was prevented from becoming impossibly confusing by the use of cognomina, or nicknames, for many legions. some cognomina were obvious reflections of locations where a legion served (e. g., Germanica for Germania), where it campaigned (e. g., Parthica), or as a tribute to some particular service (e. g., Fretensis, denoting some action at sea, or action in battle, such as Actium or Naulochus).
I Adiutrix: Raised by Emperor Nero in 68 from a force of marines at Misenum, the troops subsequently received formal establishment under General Galba. They fought for Otho at the battle of BEDRIACUM (68) and distinguished themselves by their capture of the eagle of the Legio XXI Rapax. The legion later served in Hispania, Germania, Dacia, and along the Danube. It was also nicknamed Pia Fidelis.
I Germanica: A legion first constituted during the civil wars (perhaps by Julius Caesar himself in 48). Originally known as Legio I Augusta, the legion was reformed after a disastrous performance in Hispania in 19 b. c.e. It was disbanded after participating in the revolt of Civilis in 69.
I Italica: Raised around 67 by Nero, it was stationed to Gaul in 68 and fought for Vitellius in the civil war. For its misplaced loyalty, it was sent to Moe-sia.
I Macriana: Also titled Liberatrix, it was raised by Clodius Macer in Africa in his revolt against Nero in 68. Following the establishment of Galba as emperor and the death of Macer, the legion was disbanded. It was perhaps reconstituted briefly during the reign of Vitellius in 69.
I Minervia: Raised by Emperor Domitian in 83 c. e. and named at first Flavia Minerva, after the ruler’s favorite goddess, the legion was first stationed at Bonn. It subsequently received the title of Pia Fidelis Domitiana for loyalty in 89 during the revolt of Saturninus. The titles Flavia and Domi-tiana were dropped after Domitian’s assassination. The legion later fought in Trajan’s Dacian War and Marcus Aurelius’s Parthian War.
I Parthica: Raised around 197 c. e. by Septimius Severus for his campaign in the East.
II Adiutrix: Raised by Vespasian from the units of sailors stationed at Ravenna to serve against the armies of Vitellius during the civil war in 69, it was approved officially as a legion on March 7, 70, and was stationed to Britannia. It later served on the Danube, in Pannonia Inferior. The legion also bore the title of Pia Fidelis.
II Augusta: Raised probably by Octavian, it served in Hispania and then Germania from 14 c. e. It later served in the Britannia campaign in 43. It bore as its legionary symbol the pegasus, for reasons that are not known.
II Italica: Raised around 165 by Marcus Aurelius in Italia for service in Noricum. It also bore the title of Pia Fidelis.
II Parthica: Raised around 197 by Septimius Severus for service in the East. It was later posted to
Albanum and held the distinction of being the emperor’s personal legion. In this capacity it journeyed across the empire.
II Traiana Fortis: Raised around 101 by Trajan for use in the Dacian War, the legion earned the title For-tis, or strong. Moved to Syria, it was later transferred to Egypt and was posted at Nicopolis.
III Augusta: Raised most likely by Octavian c. 41-40 B. C.E. for service in the civil wars, it was posted to Africa.
III Cyrenaica: Raised either by Marc Antony or Lep-idus sometime before 30 b. c.e., it was posted to Egypt and shared a castra (camp) with the Legio XXII Deiotariana at Nicopolis.
III Gallica: Raised perhaps by Julius Caesar in 48
B. C. E., it fought at Munda (45) and Philippi (42) and then was posted to Syria, where it was active under Antony until Actium (31). The legion remained in Syria until 68, when it transferred by Nero to Moesia. Its symbol was the bull, an indication that its origins traced themselves to Caesar— owing to Caesar’s claim of descent from Jupiter, a god whose symbol was the bull.
III Italica: Raised around 165 c. e. by Marcus Aurelius, it was stationed for a very long time in Raetia. In its early history, it was also called Legio III Con-cors (United).
World History
