Papyrus writing material
Although papyri were extensively used in Ancient Egypt, only three pieces have been reported from Tutankhamun’s tomb, two of them plain sheets used to support floral collars. The third one, bound on the royal mummy together with amulets and symbols, was badly decayed, but there were the remains of white linear hieroglyphs written on it forming part of the ritual of the Book of the Dead. Since it included reference to Osiris and Isis the conclusion was made by Carter that it referred to the magic associated with those amulets.
Cultivation of the papyrus plant was no longer required when the demand for paper made from its pith ceased during the later Roman period. However, in recent years the plants have been reintroduced into backwaters of the Nile to supply the tourist industry with modern papyrus writing material. Traditionally this was made by slicing the stalks longitudinally, discarding the outer green rind, and laying the slices of pith side by side, with another layer on top at right angles. These were gently beaten and pressed together, the two layers adhering on drying to form sheets of paper. The surface was then burnished with a special instrument. Some beautiful examples of these, made from ivory, and with handles in the form of a papyrus column, were found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. The white pith of the papyrus stalk was known to the Greeks as byblos, hence the word bybla for books that were made of papyrus, from which is derived our word Bible. The
Ivory and gold writing palettes and a pen-case in the form of a column with a date palm capital. In the middle is an ivory papyrus burnisher with a capital in the form of a lily-palmette motif, which was used to finish sheets of papyrus by providing a smooth surface for writing.
Greek name for the plant, papyros, gave us the English world ‘paper’.
Pen-cases and writing outfits Writing on papyrus sheets was by means of rush pens using carbon ink - the carbon being obtained from the soot of cooking pots, mixed with water and gum arabic. Fortunately carbon, being an element, does not fade like modern ink made with dyes. Pens made from the rush Juncus arabicus (p 34) were chewed by the scribe to separate the fibres into a small brush; while pens of reed (Phragmites australis p 35) used during the GraecoRoman period were cut with a penknife to form a point and a split was made to allow the ink to flow.
Palettes and pen-cases (or holders) of ivory were included with Tutankhamun’s effects. A tubular pen-case in gold was made in the form of a hollow column having a capital with a palm-leaf motif (see p 29).
Papyrus boats
A golden statue of Tutankhamun standing on a model green skiff of papyrus was included among his funerary items. A passage in the Bible refers to such boats: ‘Woe to the land shadowed with buzzing of wings, which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia, which sends ambassadors by sea, even in vessels of reed [ie., papyrus] on the waters’ (Isaiah 18:1-2).
Boats of various sizes with curved prows were constructed of bundles of papyrus stalks - in 1970 a replica of one, the ocean-going vessel Ra, was made for Thor Heyerdahl and six others to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Small personal skiffs are still constructed and used in the sudd area of the upper Nile and on Lake Chad, where in 1969 I poled one along while standing up. It was a strange experience, as the craft was very buoyant and water oozed up between the stalks around my feet when the load was too heavy. This buoyancy is due to the internal cellular structure of a pith, which has a network of loose cells trapping myriads of tiny air pockets. These act as buoys which very gradually become flooded when immersed in water.
Flax, linen and dyes
Rolls of linen cloth, a flax bowstring, tapestry woven gloves, coloured embroidery, Tutankhamun’s own tunics and other items were found in the tomb. Linen literally accompanied Egyptians from the cradle to the grave. All were made from the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum p 34), which was cultivated extensively in Ancient Egypt.
The cultivation of flax in Egypt is mentioned several times in the Bible. For example, during the plagues of
A small golden model of Tutankhamun standing on a green skiff, which would have been made of papyrus stalks tied together.
Egypt the crop was ruined by hail (Exodus 9:31). Later, Isaiah prophesied that when the Nile dries up ‘those who work in fine flax and those who weave fine fabric will be ashamed’ (Isaiah 19:9). Evidently Egyptian linen was used for coloured bed coverings in Jerusalem (Proverbs 7:16) and for sails of the ships of Tyre (Ezekiel 27:7).
Between the outer and second shrine of Tutan-khamun’s tomb there was a delicate pall, which was later identified at Kew as being composed of linen thread. Samples of other linen fabrics found there were studied in 1937 by R Pfister. The Egyptians used various techniques such as warp-weave and embroidery, examples of both having been recovered from Tutan-khamun’s tomb. The fabric was dyed red with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius p 32), yellow with madder (Rubia tinctorum p 35) and blue with acacia (Acacia p 22), according to H E Winlock.
Two papyrus skiffs on Lake Chad.
Baskets and mats
Baskets of various shapes and sizes were found in excellent condition in Tutankhamun’s tomb (see p. 60). Altogether there were 116, most of them containing the offerings of seeds and food that were left there for use in the afterlife. Oval baskets with or without a lid were the most frequent, but there were also several bottle-shaped ones.
All were constructed of ‘coiled work’, rather than plaited as modern baskets are. Coiled work requires two elements: the cylindrical fibrous core of grass or rush, and the binding, which is wrapped around the core. The bound core is then coiled round in successive layers to build up the basket, and the layers are sewn together to hold them in position. The binding or wrapping material was usually of palm leaves torn into narrow strips.
Papyrus was used for box-like baskets of a different construction and a beautifully made one was found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. For this only the tough green rind of the papyrus stem was used. Papyrus rind may have been used for the ‘bitumen and pitch’-covered cradle in which Moses was hidden (Exodus 2:3). This basket was floating among the Nile rushes, which are more likely to have been reed-mace (Typha domingensis p 36) than papyrus itself (Cyperus papyrus p 33). Reed-mace and various sedges were used in the manufacture of mats and several made of papyrus, rush (Juncus sp. p 34) and linen-with-rush were found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. There is also a biblical reference to the flat food baskets often found in other tombs, when the pharaoh’s
The pharaoh's carefully stitched linen glove.
Imprisoned baker dreamt of three bread baskets (Genesis 40:16-17).
Sandals
Several pairs of sandals and slippers beautifully made using beads, leather, sheet gold (even embossed with imitation rush-work), or leather and gold, with delightful floral ornamentation of lotus and mayweed were found, but it is those made of fibrous plant material that particularly interest us. The soles of one pair are woven from stems of rush (Juncus sp.), while the toe-strap is of papyrus rind twisted round a core. In another pair the soles are of papyrus with rush binding along their edges.
(see pl 21)
A sandal from Tutankhamun's tomb incorporating doum palm leaves and papyrus rind.
String and ropes
Mention is made on p 43 of a bowstring composed of linen thread (flax) that was found, but coarser ropes have not been reported from Tutankhamun’s tomb. Egyptian ropes were composed of halfa grass (Desmostachya bipinnata and Imperata cylindrica), palm leaves (Hyphaene thebaica p 59 and Phoenix dactylifera p 62) and papyrus rind (Cyperuspapyrus p 33). When one considers the size and weight of the stones used to build the temples and pyramids, the strength of the ropes needed to pull them into position must have been very great. The strength and thickness of the rope depended on the number of twisted component strands. Sometimes such ropes have been found discarded in some dark corner of a temple and they prove to be as thick as a man’s arm. The model boats in the tomb were rigged with ropes that, in real ships, would have been made of fibrous material from the plants listed above.
World History
