A Young and Attractive Queen

Cleopatra was 21 years old when she first had direct contact with Roman rulers. With her intelligence and beauty, she charmed Julius Caesar, who was some 30 years older than she. They began a relationship that lasted for several years. Cleopatra had a son during this time and said Caesar was the father. After Caesar's death, Cleopatra began a love affair and political alliance with Marc Antony. The queen's involvement with Antony and Roman politics played a part in the rise of Octavian as the first emperor, because many Romans did not like the idea of a foreign queen influencing their affairs.

In 1607 William Shakespeare wrote about Cleopatra's relations with Antony in his play Antony and Cleopatra. About 300 years later, the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) wrote a work called Caesar and Cleopatra. Both plays are still performed today, showing the continued interest in these powerful ancient figures. Today, Cleopatra represents many things. She is seen as a symbol of a strong and independent woman. She also represents the dangers of love for ambitious men who choose the wrong partners. Her death, a suicide from the bite of a poisonous snake, has often been shown in paintings.

When Augustus sent troops into battle, they focused on extending Rome’s rule over foreign people or preserving control where it already ruled. Augustus extended the empire’s borders in the Iberian peninsula, Gaul, Germany, the Middle East, and Asia Minor. He also created alliances with other kingdoms that wanted to avoid war with the Roman Empire. Modern historians sometimes call these allies client states or client kingdoms.

By the time of his death in 14 C. E., Augustus was known as the pater patriae - “father of his country”-another title Romans had granted in earlier times. Suetonius, in his Twelve Caesars, reports that the emperor wept when he received that honor, saying, “Fathers of the Senate, I have at last achieved my highest ambition.” In many parts of the empire he was worshiped as a religious figure. Augustus, who was loyal to the traditional Roman gods, did not like the idea of being deified-turned into a god. After his death, however, the Senate officially declared Augustus a god.