Agricultural seasons. Gilt images of high-status women are also seen receiving tribute. Graves of females usually contained artifacts for weaving. Models of houses raised on piles were also found. They depicted feasting activity. Court activities included hunting, bullfighting, and music and dance, but the most notable model shows a raised pavilion on which the paramount chief is meeting with subchiefs while a feast is being prepared.
Further reading: Higham, C. F W The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Shoen A shoen was a manor or agricultural estate founded and managed in Japan from the period of the NARA STATE. Although land was in theory owned By the TENNO, or sovereign, from 711 c. e. it was decreed that virgin rice land could be developed at private expense. A later decision made it possible for such improved land to be passed to the descendants of the person who initiated the investment. Institutions were also able to invest in land in the same manner. Thus the authorities of the TODAIJI temple in heijo-kyo owned shoen. The introduction at the same period of copper coinage made it more practical to employ labor to work on the estates. Although labor was in theory under strict state controls and was not mobile, in practice it was possible to hire local farmers, who could supplement their income with cash payments.
The Nara state relied on surplus rice production for the maintenance of the ruling elite, and opening new land to cultivation in this way placed central finances on a firmer footing.
Shoku Nihongi The Shoku Nihongi (Continued Chronicle of Japan) is a historic document, completed in 797 C. E., that covers the principal events in the court centers of Japan between 697 and 791 c. E. Unlike its predecessor the NIHONGI, which incorporates much myth and legend, it is regarded as being historically accurate.
Shortughai Shortughai is a small settlement, covering about 2.5 hectares (6.25 acres), that lies near the confluence of the Amu Dar’ya and Kokcha Rivers in northern Afghanistan. This is an area renowned for its deposits of LAPIS LAZULI and rubies, and the excavations there have revealed that it was occupied during the period of the INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (c. 2500-c. 1770 B. C.E.). The recovery of steatite SEALs of Indus type and structures built of mud brick indicate settlement from the south. Marine shell and the raw materials for the manufacture of ornaments from lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise leave no doubt as to the site’s role in long-distance exchange. The economy was based on irrigation agriculture and the cultivation of flax.
Shotoku, Prince (d. 622 c. e.) Prince Shotuku is the patron saint of Japanese Buddhism.
He was appointed heir to Empress Suiko, who was enthroned in 592 c. e. and was one of the major early supporters of Buddhism in Japan. Much knowledge of the prince is from the NIHONGI, a historic tract dating to 720 C. E., but myth is combined with history in the accounts. Thus he is described as being able to talk at birth and to sit in judgment on 10 cases simultaneously. He became a Buddhist cult figure; some would say a Buddha himself. He had the Ikaruga Palace built for himself at Naniwa, south of the Yodo River as it approaches Osaka Bay. This palace was identified and examined archaeologically in 1939. He was also author of a constitution that advocated obedience to state requirements. These famous 17 injunctions, allegedly formulated in 604 C. E., reveal close adherence to Buddhism and Confucianism. One recommends conversion to Buddhism to be able to follow established
Prince Shotoku was the patron saint of Japanese Buddhism. He introduced Chinese ideals of government into Japan and wrote a constitution requiring obedience to the emperor. (Art Resource, NY)
Teaching. Another requires absolute obedience to the emperor’s wishes; others advise against jealousy and express the need to start work early and end late. He was thus a vital force in the introduction of Chinese political philosophy and the Buddhist religion to Japan. On his death, he was interred in a mounded tomb 57 meters (188 ft.) in diameter, entered through a stone-lined passage. It was evidently still intact in the 14th century, when a monk entered it and described three lacquered coffins. However, by the 19th century it had been looted, and only fragments of the lacquered coffin survived.
See also confucius; shitenno-ji; yamato.
Shotorak Shotorak is a major Buddhist temple overlooking the Koh Daman Plain, five kilometers (3 mi.) distant from the capital of begram in northern Afghanistan. A main courtyard is dominated by a stupa, with a second stupa and court lying adjacent to it. It is well known for its reliefs that depict JATAKA tales. The recovery of a coin of Vasudeva, linked with the art style, dates this site to the second to fourth centuries C. E. At Shotorak, the reliefs differ in style from those typical of Gandharan art. The portrayal of the Dipamkara Buddha, the last Buddha before sakyamuni, shows flames rising from his shoulders, symbolizing divine power. This interest in flames may have derived from kushan notions of the sacred fire.
See also bamiyan; kapisi.
Shu The Chinese state of Shu was located in Sichuan province. This fertile region lies in southwestern China beyond the Chang (Yangtze) gorges. The history of Shu became inextricably tied to that of the states lying to the north and east. The homeland was early occupied by rice agriculturalists. one of the major recent discoveries in China has been the opening of the sacrificial pits at sanx-INGDUI and the realization that here flourished a state contemporary with that of shang in the central plains. The ritual and power evidenced by the bronzes, gold, and ivories of sanxingdui provide compelling confirmation of the Shu people mentioned in the Shang oracle inscriptions. Its relative remoteness meant that the Shu people were hardly mentioned in western zhou dynasty (1045-771 B. C.E.) records, and they escaped much of the turmoil of the warring states period (475-221 b. c.e.). However, the predatory power of the qin put them in the mainstream of Chinese politics, wherein they played a key role during the HAN dynasty (206 B. C.E.-220 C. E.). Relatively remote, shu culture might well extend as far as the remarkable walled city of sanxingdui, a contemporary of the late shang state of the central plains, which has produced an outstanding assemblage of bronzes in a style unique in East Asia. Little is known of the development of shu until the middle years of the first millennium B. C.E.; however, when it became the object of the predatory state of Qin, centered in the Wei Valley In 441
B. C.E. Qin forces invaded Sichuan, but only after a struggle lasting at least a century did shu become absorbed in the Qin realm. Thereafter, there are references to rebellions against foreign rule.
CHANGJIANG CIVILIZATION
The growing knowledge of the Shu state and finds from the lower reaches of the Chang River have led to the proposal that these areas made up the Changjiang civilization. The finds contrast in many basic ways with the better known shang and Zhou states of the Huang (Yellow) and Wei River Valleys to the north. This civilization was also based on the intensive cultivation of rice, which as is now known, has a history in the area that extends back at least five millennia before the first states were formed.
MEANING OF SHU
The graph for shu has a controversial origin and meaning. A first-century b. c.e. dictionary gave its meaning as can, “silkworm.” This has vague support in the name Can Cong, the name of the first shu king, and silk was certainly an important product of sichuan, as is seen in the decoration on an early bronze showing people collecting mulberry leaves. However, this is only one of several possible explanations. There are references that probably allude to the Shu in the oracle-bone archives of the shang state and the Western Zhou dynasty. one shang example questioned whether or not to send envoys to Shu; another referred to a body of 300 Shu archers. These oracle-bone inscriptions refer to the shu with a graph not in the form of a silkworm, but of an eye with a curved projection below it. A much later text says that Cancong, a legendary king of the Shu, had vertical eyes. Clearly, eyes had some importance in shu legends, and this is manifested also in the huge projections on the eyes of the bronze masks from sanxingdui.
SHU AND SHANG CONFLICT
An important collection of Western Zhou oracle bones mention a military expedition against the shu. This is not surprising: The late Shang and early Zhou records make it plain that it was a period of endemic strife between rival states and of a ferment of political alliances. The discoveries at Sanxingdui, Chengdu, and Yaan in the rich Sichuan basin are unanimous in disclosing the presence of a powerful state that commanded respect. Indeed, the SHANG SHU text lists eight states that combined to attack the Shang state, and Shu was one of them.
CONTACT WITH MAINSTREAM CHINA
Archaeologically far less is known of the Shu state than of virtually any other of the eastern zhou dynasty period (770-221 B. C.E.). There is also the problem that the Shu inscriptions are in a script that has not yet been deciphered. That there remained, as at Sanxingdui, a distinctive Sichuan bronze-casting tradition is evidenced in the styles of the many halberds and willow-leaf swords that have been found. But participation in the battle of muye in 1045 B. C.E. as a Zhou ally probably moved the people of Shu into the mainstream of Chinese politics and introduced them to new forms of weaponry and tactics. This is seen in weapons from the site of Shuiguanyin and a fine collection of ritual jade objects characteristics of the central plains repertoire, including ceremonial cong tubes, fu axes, and yazhang blades. A collection of halberds dating to the Western Zhou period from Shuiguanyin and the hoard from Zhuwajie alike show a preference for this weapon in war, whereas the chariot does not seem to have been adopted by the Shu.
Distinctiveness from the culture of the central plains in this southwestern part of China is also identified in the references to the people as having their own knotted hairstyle and local forms of dress. Nor does the state of Shu feature in the records of alliances and diplomatic contacts that survive from the period of Western Zhou, apart from a handful of equivocal references. one problem is the lack of indigenous written records, for what texts survive were written in a script that remains to be deciphered. With the Eastern Zhou dynasty, encompassing the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, there are some vague literary references to Shu. A king Duyu, took the title of king and DI, implying semidivine status. Another reference noted that a certain Beiling from the state of CHU became king of Shu in the middle of the seventh century B. C.E. He allegedly founded a dynasty of 12 rulers. One of these, Lu Di, is said to have attacked the state of Qin, an unwise move as events unfolded, and interacted increasingly with the BA state people to the east.
NEW BURIAL CUSTOMS
The Ba move west from their bases in eastern Sichuan as a response to Chu pressure introduced new influences during the fifth and fourth centuries B. C.E. One of these probably produced a novel mortuary tradition in which the dead elite were interred in boat-shaped lacquered coffins. The best instance of this is in the tomb at Jiuliandun, dated to the early fourth century B. C.E. The burial chamber was cut into the ground with access by an eight-meter-long ramp. Within lay a severely plundered burial, the centerpiece of which was a boat-shaped coffin in a grave fully 10.5 meters (34.7 ft.) in length and almost as wide. Fortunately, one section for offerings remained unviolated and was found to contain sumptuary sets of five bronze vessels, including ding tripods. There were also bells and even a bronze saw still retaining its wooden handle and bindings for attachment. A similar boat coffin was found in the burial unearthed at the Chengdu Baihuatan middle school, this time in association with nearly 50 bronze tools, weapons, and vessels. Boat-shaped coffins continued to be in vogue in the area of the Shu state, centered at Chengdu, long after the conquest by Qin.
The boat coffins invariably contain weaponry, suggesting that they were reserved for fighting men. The spears, halberds, and battle axes often have Ba text inscriptions. Not all burials of this period, however, involved boats. The rich interment at Xindu was a series of chambers replicating an elite palace and is thought to have been the tomb of one of the later kings of the Kaim-ing dynasty. Trade with other states is evidenced by the presence of Chu vessels as grave goods and a mirror from the state of JIN. The weapons also show a number of innovations, such as the development of swords and crossbow in reaction to the increasingly dangerous political conditions.
ECONOMIC ADVANCES
This period of early Warring States was also marked by economic progress. Sericulture was a major industry, and rice cultivation was improved through the creation of IRRIGATION works. In one instance the Min River was diverted. seals were used, indicating an increase in trade, and these bore written symbols. A ritual bronze vessel from the Baihuatun grave in Chengdu bears decorative scenes that illustrate aspects of Shu life. There are people collecting mulberry leaves in baskets and cooking on the ground. Most of the scenes involve warfare, both on land and on water. The land warriors use a variety of weapons, including bows, arrows, and long spears tipped with halberds. One man is being decapitated; another falls dead with his head severed from his body. The boats had richly ornamented prows and sterns and were poled or rowed by oarsmen. A well-equipped and - organized army was essential in the troubles that lay ahead and that first manifested themselves in the Battle of Nanzheng in 387 B. C.E., which pitted Shu against its nemesis, Qin.
CONFLICT WITH QIN
The Warring States period drew into its maelstrom the powerful rulers of the central plains, Shandong, the northeast, and Qin, extending south to Chu in the Chang Valley The Shu in their Sichuan fastness might have been expected to remain remote from the conflicts, but this was not to be. The Qin were interested not only in securing their southwestern flank, but also in seizing the rich agricultural and mineral wealth of Sichuan. The prelude to war between the two states involves a notable story steeped in legend. The Shu king Kaiming XII heard that his Qin counterpart owned five stone cattle that defecated gold. He asked for them as a gift, and King Hui of Qin agreed. A fine new road was built to enable the heavy sculptures to be transported to the Shu capital over the mountains. This provided access, and in 316 B. C.E. Qin invaded.
The Qin triumphed in the following battle. King Kaiming was captured and killed, and the Qin forces wheeled on Ba, their ally, and expanded over much of Sichuan. The state of Qin had adopted legalist principles in government. This involved a rigid central control over the populace on totalitarian lines. Already involved in the internecine strife that characterized the period of Warring States, Qin rulers saw that to succeed, they had to expand their power base. What better place than Sichuan, with its rich plains, mineral resources, stores of cattle and horses, and potential to produce rice surpluses, to give Qin the impetus to succeed in wars of annihilation? The ensuing century witnessed arguably the earliest case in world history of a totalitarian regime faced with the organizational problem of absorbing another state imbued with different people, unique customs, and long and independent traditions of its own.
Absorption of Shu into Qin
The resulting experiment in absorption began with the appointment of Kaiming XII’s son, Yaotong, as a marquis rather than a king, subservient to the Qin court at Xianyang. At the same time, a Qin military governor and a minister were appointed, and many Qin families were encouraged to move south and settle in Sichuan. The land of the Shu thus became a dependent province, but in 311 King Hui of Qin died, and Zhang Ruo, his governor in Sichuan, saw his chance and murdered the marquis before declaring independence. This insurrection was put down by the dispatch of Qin armies, for Sichuan was too rich a prize to risk losing, and Zhang Ruo was executed. A new marquis was found, and steps were taken to fortify the capital Chengdu and other major centers. The former city now lay behind 23-meter (76-ft.)-high walls and covered an area of 250 hectares (62.5 acres). Marquis Hui suffered from a vicious family intrigue. Intent on ingratiating himself with the Qin court, he undertook appropriate sacrifices and had the special meat sent north to Xianyang. But his mother-in-law intercepted the caravan and had the meat laced with poison. On arrival, she suggested that the food be tested before being placed before the king. When the unfortunate taster died, the king ordered that Hui be required to commit suicide. So, in 300 B. C.E., a third marquis was found, but he also revolted against Qin dominance, perhaps as he saw his native patrimony being increasingly exploited through the new offices of salt and iron control and the regular dispatch of rice wagons north to Qin.
World History
