Calenas, Q. Fufius (d. 40 b. c.e.) General and consul during the civil wars of the first century b. c.e.
Under Caesar, Calenas commanded a body of troops in Greece, where he harassed the Pompeians. While unable to storm ATHENS, Calenas did take Piraeus and laid waste the Athenian environs. In 48 b. c.e., after the death of Pompey the Great, the city surrendered to him. The Megarians apparently resisted, and the general put them down with great force but then sold the captives back to their relatives for small fees. After Caesar’s assassination, Calenas sided with Marc Antony in 43 b. c.e., defending him in a spirited oratorical rebuttal of cicero. After the battle of philippi in 42, Antony gave Calenas 11 legions to command in Gaul, relying on him to keep the real threat, Octavian (Augustus), out of the province. Calenas’s death was a cruel blow to Antony’s cause, for not only was Gaul lost, but also, by the terms of the treaty of brundisium, he had to surrender five of Calenas’s legions. Calenas was also a friend of clodius, saving him in 61 b. c.e. from condemnation after he violated the festival of bona dea.
Calendar The Roman calendar was originally based on a 10-month year that reflected the agricultural priorities of the Roman people. It ran from March to December for 304 days and then had an uncounted four-month gap, as during the winter months there were few agricultural concerns. The first day of the year commenced on March 1. By the sixth century the calendar had changed to a 12-month year, using lunar months. This meant that each month had roughly 29.5 days. The solar year is about 3651/4 days long, so there was a discrepancy of 11 days in the solar year compared to the lunar months. Not surprisingly, the Romans realized the difficulty and so added occasionally an extra month to adjust to the solar year, a process called intercalation.
What was actually involved in intercalation remains somewhat unclear, but it would appear that the Romans added 22 or 23 days (termed Intercalaris or Mercedonius) to every other February. This added more time to the calendar than was needed for the solar year, resulting in 366 1/4 days per year. By the time of Julius Caesar, intercalation had created so many extra days that the civil calendar (which began on January 1, 153 b. c.e.) was three months ahead of the solar year.
To fix the inadequate system, Julius Caesar, then dictator of Rome and an accomplished astronomer in his own right, introduced reforms to the calendar. He wiped away the old calendar and extended the year 46 b. c.e. to a length of 445 days to bring the civil calendar in line with the solar year. The new 12-month year, consisting of 365 days began on January 1, 45 b. c.e., with each month having the number of days that are presently in practice. To make the system even more precise, Caesar created a leap year by adding an extra day between February 23 and 24; originally, the leap year was used every three years, but this was modified to every four years in 8 b. c.e. Technically, the Julian calendar, as it came to be called, is 11 minutes longer than the solar year, but it served so admirably the purposes of the Romans that it remained the official calendar for Western civilization until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.
The Roman year was divided into twelve months with varying numbers of days. The names of several months changed over time, but the final list of names was set by the middle of the first century c. e. They were: Ian-uarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Iulius, Augustus, September, October, November, and December. Iulius was originally Quintilis and was counted as the fifth month. It was changed in 44 b. c.e. to Iulius in honor of Julius Caesar. Augustus was also originally called Sextilis, the sixth month. It was renamed Augustus in honor of Emperor Augustus in 8 b. c.e. The names of the months reflected in part the original 10-month calendar of the Romans: Quintilis (fifth month), Sextilis (sixth month), September (seventh month), October (eighth month), November (ninth month), and December (tenth month). After the adoption of a 12-month year, these were, of course, no longer reflective of their proper month, but the names were retained.
The days of the month were not counted in sequence (as from one to 30 or 31, or one to 28 or 29 for February). Instead, all of the months except February (which had its own system of reckoning) were divided into three parts: the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides. The Kalends always fell on the first day of the month. The Nones began on the ninth day before the Ides and fell on the seventh day of the month in March, May, July, and October, and on the fifth day in all of the other months. The Ides fell on the 15th day of the months of March, May, July, and October, and the 13th in all other months. Days were thus calculated by the span in days before (ante diem) the Kalends, Nones, and Ides. The day right before one of these named days was termed pridie. For example, the first day of the month of December was termed the Kalendas Decembribus; December 2 was called ante diem (or simply a. d.) IV ante Nonas Decembres; December 5 was Nonis Decembribus; December 13 was Idibus Decembribus (Idus); December 30 was pridie Kalendas Ianuarius (or Kal. Ian.). For February, the 24th day of the month was termed IV ante Kalendas Martias, with the leap year added to the calendar with a posteriorem.
See also festivals.
Calends See kalends.
Caligula See gaius caligula.
Callistus (d. 222 c. e.) Former slave and eventually bishop of Rome callistus was at the heart of a bitter and divisive feud within the church of Rome in the late second and early third centuries c. e. Most of what is known about him comes from the oppositional writings of the Roman presbyter hippolytus, in his Refutations of the Heresies, written around 222 c. e. The poisonous nature of the work raises questions of accuracy, but generally Hippolytus is accepted for biographical purposes. The servant of an official of Emperor commodus, callistus impressed his master carpophorus with his skills in finance and was given capital to establish a bank. When it failed, apparently from embezzlement, callistus fled, trying to sail away from Pontus. He jumped into the sea but was fished out. Freed by Carpophorus to repay the terrible debts, Callistus chose to incite an anti-Jewish riot. The city prefect, Seius Fuscianus, sent him to Sardinia.
As a Christian, Callistus was able to have himself included in the general amnesty of commodus in 192 c. e. that was directed at all Christian prisoners. He returned to Rome a free man. In 199, Zephyrinus was named bishop of the city, and callistus entered his service. Ordained, he became a new archdeacon and ran the diocese’s administrative affairs and its cemetery Essential to the diocese in this and other capacities, cal-listus succeeded Zephyrinus, who died in 217. As the new leader of the Roman christians, callistus espoused views that were contrary to those of many of his clergy and other important figures. Chief among these foes were Hippolytus and Tertullian. The disagreement was bitter, but the direct activity of callistus was ultimately brief. Nearly 60 when he assumed the see, he died in 222. His successor was Urban, accompanied by Pon-tian, both of whom carried on a religious war with Hippolytus.
See also Christianity.
Callistus, Gaius Julius (d. c. 52 c. e.) Imperial freedman during the reigns of emperors Gaius Caligula and Claudius
Under Gaius, callistus began using his office to enrich himself, but the emperor’s increasing madness forced him in 40 c. e. to join in the large group of conspirators plotting to kill the emperor. The assassination took place on January 24, 41, and Callistus was able to ingratiate himself immediately with Claudius, Gaius’s successor. As the a libellus, or secretary of petitions, to Claudius, Callis-tus worked with other freedmen, such as Narcissus, Pallas, and Polybius, eventually exercising tremendous influence over both the emperor and the court.
Calpurnia (fl. mid-first century b. c.e.) Third wife of Julius Caesar
Calpurnia helped establish a political alliance between caesar and her father, Lucius Piso Caesoninus, in 59 b. c.e. Piso gained a consulship because of the marriage.
Calpurnia was very loyal to Caesar, even though in 53 B. C.E. he considered divorcing her in favor of Pompey’s daughter. It is reported that she dreamed of Caesar’s impending assassination and tried to prevent his departure from the house on the day of his death. No one came to comfort her after Caesar’s death, except her father. Antony did visit, to claim Caesar’s papers and all available money
Calpurnius Siculus, Titus (fl. 50-60 c. e.) Bucolic poet, author of seven pastoral poems covering a wide variety of topics, including the amphitheater in Rome, singing contests, and the speeches of Nero
In style, Calpurnius greatly emulated the pastoral works of Virgil, although he also imitated Ovid. Calpurnius is a figure of some scholarly debate. Even his name could be questioned, for it is unclear whether it denoted his origins (Siculus, or Sicily), or referred to his style in writing, similar to Theokritos (the third-century B. C.E. Syracusan poet). The greatest mystery, however, surrounds his poems and those of Menesianus. Until 1854, the poems of these two authors were always published together leading to a dispute as to which poem was penned by Calpurnius and which by Nemesianus. Calpurnius, hence, may not have written the Laude Pisonis, a panegyric to the famed conspirator of the Neronian era.
Calvinus, Gnaeus Domitius (fl. mid-first century B. C.E.) Consul in 53 and in 40 B. C.E. and a supporter of Julius Caesar and Augustus
Calvinus served as a tribune during Caesar’s consulship and then ran for the post himself in 54 B. C.E. In some of the worst election campaigns of the era, Calvinus gained his seat by corrupt methods. During the Civil War, he chose the side of Caesar against pompey the great. As a legate in Thessaly during the Dyrrhachium campaign of 48 B. C.E., he helped defeat the forces of Pompey in that region. After the battle of Pharsalus in that same year, Caesar ordered him to send two legions as support to Alexandria. Meanwhile, with only one legion and some auxiliaries at his disposal, Calvinus tried to stop the advance of Pharnaces, the king of the Bosporus, but was beaten at Nicopolis. Following Caesar’s assassination, Calvinus granted his allegiance to Oc-tavian (Augustus), taking over affairs in Spain around 40 B. C.E.
Calvisius (fl. mid-first century c. e.) Accuser during the reign of Nero
JUNIA SILANAS, a one-time friend and then bitter enemy of empress Agrippina the younger, attempted in 55 c. e. to ensnare the empress in false accusations. Two of Junia’s clients, Calvisius and Iturius, spread the story that Agrippina was planning to elevate Rubellius Plautus to the throne because Nero, her son, had spurned her.
Upon hearing of the supposed plot, Nero was ready to murder both his mother and Plautus. Burrus, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, restrained Nero’s rage and proposed to allow the empress to clear herself of the charges. She did so, and Junia Silanas was banished. Calvisius and his partners both suffered self-imposed exile, returning to Rome in 59.
Calvus, Gaius Licinius Macer (82-47 or 46 b. c.e.) Son of the annalist and praetor Licinius Macer
An ADVOCATUS and an erotic poet, he was born on May 28, 82 B. C.E., Calvus displayed early on a gift for oratory and at the age of 27 challenged Cicero in his prosecution of Vatinius. A long career seemed to stretch ahead of him but he died at the age of 35 or 36, in either 47 or 46 b. c.e. Calvus also distinguished himself as a poet. Influenced by the Alexandrian School, he wrote numerous poems, specializing in erotica and the epic, although his lampoons of Caesar were so sharp as to require a formal reconciliation. None of his works are extant.
See also poetry.
Camillus, Furius Scribonianus (1) (d. 42 c. e.) Father of Camillus (2), and consul in 32 c. e.
As legate in Dalmatia, Camillus conspired with such notables as Caecina Paetus, Annius Vinicianus, and Pom-ponius Secundus to overthrow the emperor. He composed a letter to Claudius, threatening him with civil war if he did not abdicate. His two legions, however, refused to follow him, and either killed him or forced him to commit suicide. He was married to Vibia.
Camillus, Furius Scribonianus (2) (d. c. 52 c. e.) Son of Furius Scribonianus Camillus (1)
Like his father, Camillus was destroyed politically during the reign of Claudius. He probably fell prey to the jealous alertness of Agrippina. In 52 c. e. he was charged with the use of magic (by consulting Chaldaean astrologers) to curse the emperor. As a result, Camillus and his mother Vibia were exiled. He died soon after, possibly of poison.
Cammuni A tribe of Helvetians who revolted against Rome in 16 b. c.e. Given their location in the Alps relative to Italia, Roman authorities took immediate steps to suppress the tribe. The brief campaign was conducted by Publius Silius.
Campania District in southern Italy surrounded by the region of Latium, Samnium, and Lucania; one of the most beautiful areas of Italy, possessing several famous cities and natural points of interest. For centuries Campania was a select retreat for the nobility. Under the empire such Campanian communities as Baiae and Bauli maintained an atmosphere of leisure and exclusivity. Fertile soil allowed crops to be grown three times a year, and vineyards produced a fine wine. Oils, metalwork, and cloth were other products, while the port of Puteoli provided a gateway for seaborne trade, but was suppressed by Ostia in the second century c. e. pompeii and Herculaneum were burgeoning metropolises preserved as time capsules for the future by the explosion of Mount Vesuvius on August 24, 79 c. e. The principal city of the region was capua.
Campus Agrippa Area within the boundaries of Rome named after Marcus agrippa. A number of construction projects were developed within its perimeters, including a portico, built by his sister, polla, and a race course. In 7 B. C.E., Augustus declared the Campus open to the public.
Campus Martius Large plain named after its altar to Mars; located just outside of the original walls of Rome near the northwestern bend of the Tiber River. The plain was surrounded by the capitoline, Quirinal, and pincian hills and for centuries served as the gymnasium area for youths and military drilling. Temples and altars multiplied there during the days of the Republic, but under the empire a strenuous building program on the property never ceased. Emperor Augustus sponsored a temple to Neptune in 32 B. C.E., and the first stone amphitheater, of Statilius Taurus, was erected in 29 b. c.e. Marcus Agrippa laid out an ambitious program: the Saepta of Julia, the Baths of Agrippa, and the pantheon. Other buildings were constructed over the next centuries. During the reign of Domitian (81-96 C. E.), a stadium housed athletic shows. it rested on a solid foundation of concrete. Entertainment could also be found in the Theater of Marcellus, dedicated in 13 or 11 b. c.e., and the Theater of Balbus, dedicated in 13 b. c.e. Hadrian placed the basilicas of Mar-ciana and Matidia in the Campus Martius and was memorialized by Antoninus Pius with his own temple in 154 C. E. In turn, Pius was honored with a column of beautiful classic sculpture, depicting the Marcomannic War.
The campus Martius also served as the final resting place of many notable Romans. In 12 b. c.e., Agrippa was placed in a mausoleum there. Drusus, Tiberius’s brother, joined him in 9 b. c.e. Augustus (d. 14 c. e.) had his own elaborate mausoleum. In 193 C. E., Septimius Severus used the burial of the murdered Emperor Pertinax to eulogize the deceased and to further his own firm hold on the throne. Gardens, an aqueduct, a sun-dial (added in 10 B. C.E.) and the famous Ara Pacis, the Altar of Peace, made the Campus Martius popular. It was officially added to Rome when the wall of aurelian was constructed.
Camulodunum One of the leading cities of Roman-occupied BRITANNIA, situated in modern Essex. For years prior to the invasion by Aulus Platius, Camulodunum (modern colchester) served as the capital of the Belgae in Britain, under the rule of Cassivellaunus and his son, Tasciovanus. The court there during the reign of Cuno-bellinus was a center of strong rule but increasing disagreement on policy toward the Roman Empire. Claudius’s conquest of the isles focused strategically on Camulodunum, and its fall in 43 c. e. signalled the end of Belgae power.
The new Roman province of Britannia, under Aulus Plautius, had Camulodunum as its capital. Colonists followed, settling in the former Belgae lands. Town life emerged after the official declaration in 49 c. e. of the colonial status of the region. Near Fishbourne, just outside of the city, a harbor was constructed. Veterans continued the expansion of the colony, with baths, a forum, theaters and a remarkable temple. This temple, originally dedicated to Claudius, emerged as the seat of the imperial CULT in the province. By the end of the first century C. E., Camulodunum had been surpassed in importance by Londinium (London). The administrative center of the Roman occupation remained in the city until the revolt of Queen boudicca in 61 c. e.
Candidus, Tiberius Claudius (fl. late second century C. E.) General and senator
Candidus was an accomplished officer serving in the army of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He possessed the favor of Emperor Commodus, who made him a senator, and was eventually the general of Emperor Septimius Severus. He commanded an army in Illyria from 193 to 197 C. E., proving invaluable at the battles of Cyzicus, Nicaea, and the Issus, against the claimant Pescennius Niger.
Candidus Crassus, Publius (d. 30 b. c.e.) Legate of Marc Antony
Candidus served as Antony’s principal agent and general in preparing for his war with parthia in 36 b. c.e. Crassus arrived in ARMENIA sometime in 37 to bring its King Artavasdes back into the sphere of Roman influence. A quick battle was followed by Armenia’s submission; Crassus, with Antony’s prodding, took Artavasdes at his word. with no guarantees, the legate marched away into the Asian kingdom of Iberia and conquered its ruler, Pharn-abazus. He then joined Antony for the Parthian invasion, completely ignorant of the fact that Armenia could not be trusted. Marc Antony’s war on the Parthians ended in disaster, and when he left his retreating columns to join Cleopatra, it was up to Crassus and his fellow officer, Domitius Ahenobarbus, to bring the broken army back to Syria.
Unlike many soldiers and politicians who saw Octa-vian (see Augustus) gaining the upper hand, Crassus chose to remain with his leader. In 31, when the final battle at ACTIUM was about to start, Crassus was appointed the commander of Antony’s land forces. with the legions on shore he awaited news of the titanic struggle taking place on the sea. Within hours he knew that the destiny of Antony had been sealed. His troops refused to escape to Egypt and settled into negotiations with the agents of Octavian. Crassus wisely fled but was captured. After the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 B. C.E., Octavian pondered Crassus’s fate and deemed him too loyal to the dead. Crassus was put to death, one of but a few executed by the new, sole ruler of Rome.
Cantabri People of the Cantabri region of northern Spain. Like the native Spaniards in the early days of Roman occupation, the Cantabri did not accept subjugation or pacification until they were utterly defeated by Emperor Augustus’s generals. In 35 B. C.E., Augustus waged war in Spain and, though successful against surrounding tribes, he could not subdue the Cantabri. They revolted again in 22 B. C.E., as part of a wider uprising, but were defeated by the governor, Gaius Furnius, with many prisoners sent into slavery and others committing suicide. The tribes rose up yet again in 19 b. c.e. Their cause was championed by former warriors who had been enslaved but who had slain their masters and returned home. The Roman legions were victorious, and their general Agrippa took severe steps. All Cantabri of military age were massacred, and the rest were forced to live on the area’s plains.
Capella, Martianus (fl. fifth century) Encyclopedist Born in Africa prior to the Vandal invasions, Capella composed an encyclopedia of the seven arts, forming nine separate volumes. Subject matter ranged from rhetoric, geography, mathematics, and music. His sources included Pliny the Elder, Salinus, and Varro, whom he imitated in poetic form and style. His work was written in prose-poetical way, presenting personified types of learning.
Capellianus (fl. mid-third century c. e.) Governor (of senatorial rank) of Numidia, who in 238 c. e. proved the personal undoing of the imperial aspirations of the Gordians Capellianus had been appointed governor by Maximinus and remained loyal to him. During his tenure of office he had even entered into a lawsuit with the governor of Africa, gordian. In 238, when the Gordians seized the throne, Capellianus sided with Maximinus. The Numid-ian governor marched on Carthage with the III Augusta Legion and its auxiliary cohorts. Gordian’s hopes were crushed, despite the popular support of the Carthaginians. Gordian II fell in the battle, and his father, Gordian I, killed himself.
Caper, Flavius (fl. early second century c. e.) Grammarian of the era of Trajan (97-117 c. e.)
Caper was the author of two treatises: de orthographia and de verbis dubiis. Little is known about his personal life.
Capito, Cossutianus (fl. 57-66 c. e.) Governor of Cilicia c. 57 c. e.
Famed for his role as an accuser during the reign of NERO, Capito served in Cilicia and earned the enmity of the local populace by shamefully extorting them. Prosecuted for this crime, he returned to Rome and began to accuse others. His first victim was the praetor, Antistius, who was accused in 62 of treason for reading a libelous verse against Nero at a banquet. Capito found allies at court and was elevated to the rank of senator by his father-in-law, the infamous Praetorian Prefect Tigellinus. The pair soon began to blackmail the rich and powerful of the city, gaining the wealth of Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan, after Mela killed himself in 66. Capito bore one Thrasea Paetus a grudge for aiding the Cilicians in 57 C. E., and in 66, after Thrasea had made the mistake of not honoring Empress Poppaea, listed a battery of charges against him. Thrasea was prosecuted, and Capito received five million sesterces.
Capito, Gaius Ateius (34 b. c.e.-22 c. e.) Jurist of the early Augustan era
Capito represented the conservative monarchist perspective in the reigns of Augustus (27 B. C.E.-14 c. e.) and Tiberius (14-37 C. E.). Although from a nonaristocratic family (his father was a praetor), Capito was famed for his oratorical skills and was placed second only to M. Antis-tius Labeo as a noted jurist. He lived in Rome as a favorite of Augustus, who made him a consul in 5 C. E.; he also served on the influential cura aquarum from 13 to 22 c. e.
World History
