The Northern Belize Coastal Project (NBCP, Figure 17.2) has documented a hierarchy of trading sites present during the Late to Terminal Classic transition and into the Postclassic period (Mock 1994a, 1999, n. d.b). The endurance of some of these sites over the transition indicates the significance of maritime trade during these late periods for the Belize region (Andrews and Vail 1990; Guderjan and Garber 1995; McKillop 1989; McKillop and Healy 1989; Mock n. d.a, n. d.b). Moreover, salt production was an impetus for trade during the Late to Terminal Classic periods (Mock 1994a, n. d.a).
The NRL site (Figure 17.4), located on the Northern River Lagoon (Figure 17.2), served as a trans-shipment port to inland sites such as Colha and Kichpanha during the Late to Terminal Classic transition (a. d. 680-900). Its location adjacent to the perennial Northern River facilitated the movement of goods presumably received from exchange with smaller coastal sites such as Saktunja, sites in the Belize interior, and materials obtained from maritime merchants (Mock 1994a, 1997b, n. d.a). Mock bases this interpretation of a socioeconomic relationship on the recovery of numerous ceramic types identical to Colha in addition to NRL’s obvious role as a consumer of Colha-manufactured stone tools. Specialized ceramics attest to a flourishing salt-making industry (sal cocida) at this time and to NRL’s role as a probable producer and distributor of this resource to interior sites such as Colha (Mock 1994a, 1997b, 1999, n. d.a).
The presence of substantial quantities of utilized stemmed and unstemmed chert blades provides additional support for a Late to Terminal Classic transition date for NRL (Graham 1987b; 75-76; Shafer and Hester 1983, 1988). Radiocarbon dates also indicate occupation of the site from the late seventh century to early tenth century (Mock 1994a, 1999). Polychrome ceramics linger at the smaller site of Saktunja, overlapping with transitional red-slipped types until around a. d. 1000 (Figure 17.7a-e). This pottery is intermingled with Postclassic materials in some areas of the site, in contrast to NRL. Whether the site of NRL was wholly or partially abandoned after the Terminal Classic is unclear at this point. Postclassic Palmul Incised and Navula Unslipped vessels were found in one surface context directly on top of Terminal Classic ceramics, indicating a later but more limited occupation than Saktunja (Mock 1994a). As at other sites in northern Belize, the presence of these ceramics may indicate post-abandonment ritual activities. It is also possible that limited site sampling has affected the quantification and these interpretations of Postclassic materials at these sites.
Great variety is a characteristic of the Late to Terminal Classic-period jar and olla types at Saktunja and NRL, such as the different neck and rim treatments on what are variously called Cayo and Alexander’s Unslipped and TuTu Camp Striated. At Saktunja, Terminal Classic unslipped jars have short necks and single or double rolled, padded, or thickened rims (Figure 17.8a-i) that differ from those reported at other sites, where tall, outcurving necks and sharply everted rims are more
77.7 Polychromes from NRL and Saktunja.
Common. Striations are present but the vessel surfaces resemble the later (unstriated) Postclassic Navula Unslipped (or Santa Unslipped) type in their brushed or smoothed treatments. Body sherds can thus be difficult to type or place chronologically. Navula-like or Santa-like unslipped folded olla rims are also present in Terminal Classic levels at Caye Coco, and these rims also share a chunky calcite or grit temper with the Santa Unslipped wares. However, these earlier attributes do not numerically dominate the unslipped assemblage, as is the case for Postclassic levels.
Both NRL and Saktunja, along with other coastal communities, were initially settled in the Late Classic period as specialized localities engaged in production of salt by the sal cocida (boiling sea water) method. This activity is identified from the dense deposits of ceramic debris associated with this process. These small communities also extracted and processed marine resources, such as salted fish and marine shell raw materials or artifacts (Mock 1994a, 1997a, 1999, n. d.b; Masson n. d.). The archaeological contexts of salt-making and specialized ceramic products indicate that the sal cocida method was practiced during the Late to Terminal Classic and that this was discontinued by a. d. 1100 at NRL and Saktunja, probably due to the grander scale and superior quality of northern Yucatecan salt-making facilities (Andrews and Mock 2002).
The term “transition” used to characterize this period in the title of this volume reflects the fact that the definition of the Terminal Classic period as a transitional era carries an expectation that deposits of this date will have mixed chronological indicators. Transitional ceramics do not fit easily into a uniform regional and chronological type:variety classification. As mentioned previously, some scholars interpret a conjoined Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic in Belize as a transitional phase (D. Chase 1982b; Graham 1985, 1987b; Walker 1990; see also Rice 1987a for Peten). The NRL ceramic assemblage, in light of the site’s role as a trading node, provides an example of the wide range of ceramics being produced or obtained from a variety of sources at this time.
Ceramics are well preserved at both Saktunja and NRL, but the latter site is distinguished by deep lenses of well-preserved Late to Terminal Classic sherds, suggesting either a dense occupation at this coastal community or the presence of stockpiled nonlocal ceramics stored for exchange (Mock 1994a; see also Reents-Budet 1994). This is particularly true of the Terminal Classic, as assemblages of this date exhibit a profusion of elaborate decorative elements such as dichrome, resist painting, vertical fluting, modeled-carving, and punctations combined with new composite types. These trends suggest an acceleration of complex levels of information exchange and stylistic expression. The representation of a wide variety of status-related ceramics at NRL and the recovery of a functionally complete complex is in marked contrast to other salt-making sites on the coast of Belize (Graham and Pendergast 1989; MacKinnon and Kepecs 1989; McKillop 1994; Valdez and Mock 1991). Some of this decorative experimentation within certain
C d e f
17.8 Unslipped vessel forms from Saktunja.
Types laid the foundations for preferred, more standardized Postclassic traditions that followed. For example, Miseria Applique censer types and annular-based vessels display attributes that were later incorporated into the Postclassic unslipped spiked censer tradition (Mock 1994a).
The pattern of retrospective borrowing of technological attributes and stylistic conventions is especially apparent within the black-slipped types of the Achote Black group. Of all the groups, this one displays the greatest number of decorative techniques and slip crossovers, including applique, impression, stamping, incision (deep and shallow), and modeling. It also has the greatest number of forms, including vases, cylinders, bowls, and platters. No black-slipped jars were recovered at Saktunja or NRL. Attributes such as the subtractive treatment of slip in the Toro Gouged-Incised and Cubeta Incised varieties persist into the Postclassic in thicker-walled, red slipped types such as Carved Red Ware, Zakpah Orange Red, and slate ware paste pottery (Mock 1994b, n. d.b). Transitional Achote Black paste becomes more yellow and sandy with coarse inclusions in the coastal Belize assemblages. Slip color varieties include a fire-dull black, a glossy black, and a golden brown differentially fired slip, making many sherds difficult to classify (Rice 1987a), though these are often subsumed under the type name of Achote Black.
Achote Black and its varieties are conunon in Peten (Ball 1977; Gifford 1976; Rice 1987a; Sabloff 1975) and among other Late to Terminal Classic assemblages in Belize such as Colha (Valdez 1987), Santa Rita (D. Chase 1982b), Cerros (Walker 1990), and sites surveyed in the NBCP Project such as Gabriel’s Island, Shark’s Point, Rocky Point, Pott’s Creek Lagoon, and sites at Midwinter’s Lagoon (Figure 17.2). Ball (1977: 135) associates Achote varieties with Tinaja Red and northern types, while Valdez (1987) proposes that it is of northern Belize origin. Mock (1994a) also argues for the existence of at least one northern Belize production center, based on the frequency and considerable variety found in this area. Achote Black’s incorporation of decorative attributes with slate wares from the north is discussed below, and this is particularly observed in ceramic bowls from NRL (Mock 1994a). Decorative modes are also shared with locally produced ceramics of the Daylight Orange group at Saktunja and NRL, suggesting a close relationship in the manufacturing locales and techniques of these two types. Experimentation with resist and differential firing on the Daylight Orange type is illustrated on sherds from NRL (Figures 17.9a-c). A composite vessel from NRL (Figure 17.10a) shows a combination of decorative techniques on a single pot.
Connections with northern Yucatan at NRL are indicated by the presence of Cehpech-related slate wares such as Chumayel Red-on-slate, Sacalum Black-on-slate, and Pixtun Trickle-on-gray that were probably obtained through trade (Ball 1977; Mock 1994a; Smith 1971; Valdez 1987; Walker 1990). Forms include restricted-mouth jars with rolled or straight rims and occasional strap handles. These jars probably were used to ship products from the north and were subsequently reused by the local inhabitants (Mock n. d.a). Bowls with rounded sides and flat bottoms and small basal break tripod bowls with vertical or slightly out-flared walls and oven-shaped supports are also characteristic. Other Terminal Classic sites in northern Belize and Quintana Roo such as Nohmul (D. Chase 1982b: 502-
17.9 Transitional resist techniques on Terminal Classic ceramics from NRL
503), Cerros (Walker 1990), Becan (Ball 1977), and Colha (Valdez 1987) also have revealed small quantities of slate wares thought to be indicative of exchange or communication with the northern lowlands. This is curious considering the local production of salt at coastal sites during the Late to Terminal Classic using labor-intensive processes when salt was also available in northern Yucatan. Per-
A
B
17. W Sherds from NRL, including, a) a composite ceramic bowl, b) Tunich Red-on-orange, c) Zacatel cream bowl.
Haps other commodities were important for exchange with the north through coastal trading sites on the Belize coast, such as NRL. Although slate ware sherds are common in Terminal Classic deposits at NRL, they are less common at Saktunja, perhaps due to this smaller site’s subordinate relationship to the larger site of NRL.
Ties to Peten, the Belize Valley, and the southern Belize coast are demonstrated in the NRL assemblage by the presence of unit-stamped and punctated jars (Adams 1971; Hammond 1975; Sabloff 1975) and ash-tempered wares such as Puhui-zibal Composite (Gifford 1976; Thompson 1939; Willey et al. 1965). Other ties to ceramic traditions of Peten are observed in the frequency of Subin Red bowls with incurved walls and slightly restricted orifices (Adams 1971; Sabloff 1975; Valdez 1987). In the Terminal Classic, however, the vessel body and circumferential ridge become thicker and cruder and the slip becomes more orange and streaky. Tinaja Red slipped, straight-necked, and outcurved-neck water jars and thin-walled bowls (Adams 1971: 235; Ball 1977; Sabloff 1975; Valdez 1987; Valdez et al. 1995) are common at NRL and Saktunja, but in Terminal Classic deposits there was experimentation in forms and slips. For instance, the vertical-necked jars at Saktunja in the Terminal Classic deposits have the darker red slip characteristic of Payil Red. As alluded to previously, large jars with everted rims become less common in the subsequent Postclassic in favor of small rolled-rim vessels, and the deep red-slipped Payil Red dish at Saktunja evolves into a thin-walled vessel with a simple pointed or rounded lip. One unusual bowl has an exterior padded rim that is sharply beveled on the vessel interior (Mock n. d.b). Paste studies are needed to determine the developmental links between Tinaja Red and Payil Red.
Both Saktunja and NRL are characterized by the presence of ceramics in the Palmar group such as Tunich-Red-on-Orange plates (see also Sabloff 1975: 126, 127; Mock n. d.b) and Yucatal Black-on-Red bowls in addition to the ubiquitous Palmar Orange polychromes characterized by in-beveled or rounded rims (Figure 17.10b). The rarer Zacatel Cream (Figure 17.10c) polychrome bowls and an unnamed black and red on cream polychrome type of the Palmar Group are recovered at NRL in Terminal Classic deposits, but not at Saktunja. The presence of the Palmar Orange polychrome plates with beveled or round rims (Figure 17.7a-e) is curious because polychromes generally diminish or disappear at other Terminal Classic sites in Belize and Peten (Adams 1971; Rice 1987a). Coincidentally, identical polychrome sherds also have been recovered on Gabriel’s Island in Northern River Lagoon and at the interior sites of Kichpanha and Colha. The latter site may have been the locus of production for these types (Mock 1998c). The ubiquitous presence of these polychromes in Late to Terminal Classic deposits at all four sites suggests that the plates, unlike the status-laden fine polychromes described by Reents-Budet (1994), were produced for more general, non-elite consumption (Mock 1994a, 1997b, n. d.b; Valdez 1987). However, they are not noted in NBCP surveys at other coastal sites.
Zacatel Cream bowls (Figure 17.10c) also represent the Palmar Group at NRL, although they are not recovered at Saktunja. They occur at NRL in smaller bowl forms that may be related to drinking activities or rituals. The slip of this type changes over time in a manner similar to that of Achote Black, as the black-on-cream slip becomes golden brown with streaked brown interiors. In some cases, the cream slip is barely discernible in otherwise well-preserved ceramics (Mock 1999, n. d.b).
A new type defined at NRL is Fat Polychrome (Figure 17.7d, 17.7e), occurring in large, thick basins with bolstered rims, obviously influenced by northern slate ware forms. This distinctive, very late type also is found at Saktunja and the Salt Creek site directly south on Midwinter’s Lagoon, but it is not found at Colha or Kichpanha, suggesting yet another spatially uneven distribution pattern.
The Late to Terminal Classic ceramic inventory of the Pibil Luum complex of NRL is composed primarily of Tepeu 3 types with some overlap of Tepeu 2 types as defined at Uaxactun. This complex is very similar to the Masson complex as defined by Valdez (1987) at Colha, except for the greater numbers of types and varieties at NRL, which might be expected of a trading station. Ceramics of the Pibil Luum complex exhibit the variability characteristic of northern Belize assemblages during this time period (A. Chase and D. Chase 1987a; Graham 1987b: 78). The following description of NRL ceramics focuses primarily on types that represent the Terminal Classic period and may continue from the Late Classic. These types also include those that are new to the Classic period inventory at this site and that are not traditionally defined within Late Classic Tepeu 2 and 3 spheres.
Evidence of Late Classic to Terminal Classic transitional occupation at both sites is signaled by subtle changes in diagnostic ceramic attributes, paralleling Graham’s (1987b: 79) analysis of ceramics from Lamanai. For example, Graham observes an evolution of Early Postclassic large pedestal-based bowls from antecedent Late Classic Roaring Creek Red and Daylight Orange types. These types anticipate Buk-phase Postclassic chalices characteristic of Lamanai. Similar Late Classic large basal-break bowls with ring bases noted in the NRL ceramic assemblage are placed in the Kik Red group, a Terminal Classic type (D. Chase 1982b) common to northeastern Belize. This type closely resembles the Daylight Orange group in form, and it may replace this group in northern Belize. Daylight Orange: Darknight Variety occurs at NRL in a large outcurved bowl form with thickened or beveled rim, a smaller bowl with out-flared walls, and a round-sided bowl with flat bottom (Figure 17.9a). Another type. Daylight Orange: Dark Night Composite, was established at NRL (Figure 17.10a). The Daylight group, according to Ball (1983a), reflects connections to other central Belize sites, although the Daylight Orange: Variety Unspecified has been difficult to recognize in the archaeological assemblages.
Kik Red exemplifies the reiteration of earlier ceramic complexes in forms and surface treatment, especially in its characteristics of differentially fired slip color and waxy surface finish. These characteristics recall attributes of Late Preclassic-period types, including San Antonio Golden Brown and Sierra Red. This retrospective trend continues during the Postclassic period (Willey et al. 1965; Masson 2000). Willey et al. explained this phenomenon as a lack of Postclassic creativity that led to emulation of earlier pottery attributes. Postclassic construction efforts often disturbed deposits of earlier age, and thus occupants of Postclassic communities would have been familiar with prior pottery traditions. Emulation and creative recombination of earlier attributes may have been symbolically significant in expressing links to past occupants, and this strategy in inventing new Postclassic forms with retrospective decorative attributes can alternatively be viewed as a highly creative process.
Included in the eclectic assemblage at NRL are unslipped miniature vessels, possibly used as paint pots (Mock 1994a; Smith and Gifford 1966). Portions of ceramic drums (including one anthropomorphic example) are present in Late to Terminal Classic assemblages at NRL (Mock 1994a) and continue into the Postclassic period at Saktunja. Lubaantun-style mold-made figurines and whistles known from Seibal (Willey 1978), Altar de Sacrificios (Willey 1972), and southern Belize (McKillop 1989; Thompson 1939: 156, Figure 92i-j, Plate 22: 1, 3; Willey et al. 1965: 398, Figure 257j; Willey 1972: 14—74) are mixed in with transitional types but date to the early part of the transition.
Coastal sites such as NRL or Saktunja are unlikely locales for surplus ceramic production geared toward exchange because of the environmental conditions, such as humidity, wind, rainfall, and lack of suitable potting clays (Mock 1999). Decorated utility as well as elite-status types recovered at NRL were thus presumably produced by outside potters. They represent a vast network of dynamically changing social and economic relationships and a consumer demand for fine pottery during the Late to Terminal Classic transition.
The sites of NRL and Saktunja may represent cadet settlements, founded perhaps by kin groups around the eighth century a. d. at a time when population movements and settlement shifts were common (Culbert 1988; Mock 1994a). These population shifts, also reflected in the abandonment of some inland sites, may have been triggered by pressures from burgeoning populations on resources at inland locations (Culbert 1977: 525-528, 1988; Dahlin 1976; D. Rice 1993a: 31; Thompson 1954; Webb 1964; Valdez 1987; Willey and Shimkin 1973: 491). Political factors also contributed to the decline of certain areas, as indicated by the acceleration of warfare documented among Peten and Petexbatun polities (Demarest and Houston 1990; Demarest 1997; Demarest et al. 1997; Foias and Bishop 1997; Wright 1997a; Scheie and Miller 1986: 28-29; Webster 1977).
The magnitude or direction of population movements during this time period is difficult to assess. Even low numbers of elites, whether settlers or visitors, could stimulate important changes in ceramic inventories through processes of stimulus diffusion (Clark and Gosser 1995) or through the establishment of new networks of exchange and emulation. Scheie’s (1995) analysis of epigraphic and ethnohistoric records (following Barrera Vasquez and Morley 1949) suggests that migrations out of Peten accompanied the decline of Classic-period centers, and that such migrations followed a route that passed through Belize and eastern
Quintana Roo toward northern Yucatan. Archaeologists have suggested similar scenarios (A. Chase 1986; Pendergast 1985; Ball and Taschek 1989). Coastal sites such as NRL and Saktunja would have been a logical place for settlement in this diaspora. The diversity of artifacts may reflect settlement of this area by different cultural groups.
World History
