The pictorial and archaeological records of late Predynastic Egypt reveal the expansion of small centralized kingdoms in Upper Egypt and provide evidence of overt military activity. Attacks upon fortified cities were a major artistic theme, which seems to reflect the true state of affairs (Partridge 2002: 139-42; Yadin 1963: 50-7, 146-7). For example, a fragment of a slate palette depicts a coalition of Upper Egyptian states hacking down urban garrisons. It is impossible to tell who the foes were. On a second broken palette we see a bull stamping upon and preparing to gore a western enemy, most probably a Libyan, although once more the historical context is lost.
Of great importance for this archaic style of warfare was the development of the double convex bow, a primitive implement frequently depicted on palettes and maces (Partridge 2002: 31-4; Yadin 1963: 43-8). Yet, because of its force maces were employed only in close combat. Hence, the archer came to play a major role in the efficiency and capability of early armies. The dagger sword, a more flexible and lighter close-combat implement than the unbalanced mace, became ubiquitous in the military between 3000 and 2000 bc. Cutting weapons were composed of two separate parts, the hilt and the blade. Owing to the weakness of the join, any downward stroke was somewhat limited. Socketed axeheads, introduced later, were used in Syria at the end of the third millennium bc. A further type, known from Egyptian reliefs of the Eleventh Dynasty, includes epsilon axes which were also socketless (Yadin 1963: 59-62 and 154-5). Their lighter weight permitted easier handling of a longer, sharper cutting surface; the older semicircular axes actually had a shorter contact area. Furthermore, the new axes retained a semicircular head blade that was very useful for cutting and gouging into the mud brick walls of fortified cities. The shields carried by the Egyptian foot-soldiers (but not by the archers) were large and effective against a sword, axe, or dagger, but at this time there was no armor, not even helmets.
The weaponry reflected a static concept of warfare and personal combat. The large shields could limit danger from far-away archers while parrying blows in close combat (Yadin 1963: 46-8). The infantry consisted of foot-soldiers who carried their large cowhide shields on their backs and fought with a sword or spear in the right hand. Some of them served as protection for the archers, with whom they worked in tandem. The regular foot-soldiers could form a wedge or a primitive phalanx in order to forge ahead on the battlefield or attack the wall of a fortified locality.
World History
